past sins (2 Sam. 6:8), and David accepted his curse as from the Lord (v. 11). It
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 16:3 where is your master's son? According to 9:9–10, Ziba was able to garner such food and drink. His master had been Saul before his death and was then Mephibosheth. give me back the kingdom of my father. Ziba, evidently trying to commend himself in the eyes of David by bringing these gifts, accused his master of disloyalty to the king and participation in Absalom's conspiracy for the purpose of bringing down the whole Davidic house. Thus the house of Saul would re-take the throne, and he would be king. This was a false accusation (see 19:24–25), but it was convincing to David, who believed the story and made a severe and rash decision that inflicted injury on a true friend, Mephibosheth.
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 16:5 Bahurim. See note on 3:16.
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 16:5–8 Shimei. Shimei was a distant relative of Saul, from the tribe of Benjamin, who cursed David as a "man of blood" (vv. 7–8) and a "worthless man" (see note on 1 Sam. 2:12). He could possibly be the Cush of Ps. 7. Shimei declared that the loss of David's throne was God's retribution on his past sins (2 Sam. 6:8), and David accepted his curse as from the Lord (v. 11). It could be that Shimei was accusing David of the murders of Abner (3:27–39), Ish-bosheth (4:1–12), and Uriah (11:15–27).
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 16:9 Abishai. See note on 2:18. dead dog. I.e., worthless and despised (cf. 9:8).
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 16:10–14 The patience and restraint of David on this occasion was amazingly different from his violent reaction to the slanderous words of Nabal (1 Sam. 25:2ff.). On that occasion, he was eager to kill the man until placated by the wisdom of Abigail. He was a broken man at this later time and knew that while the rancor of Shimei was uncalled for, his accusations were true. He was penitent.
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 16:15 Ahithophel. See note on 15:12.
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 16:15–23 Absalom set up his royal court in Jerusalem.
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 16:16 Hushai. See note on 15:32.
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 16:21–22 your father's concubines. David had left behind in Jerusalem 10 concubines to take care of the palace (15:16). In the Near East, possession of the harem came with the throne. Ahithophel advised Absalom to
have sexual relations with David's concubines and thereby assert his right to his father's throne. On the roof of the palace in the most public place (cf. 11:2); a tent was set up for this scandalous event, thereby fulfilling the judgment announced by Nathan in 12:11–12.
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 17:1–4 Ahithophel's second piece of advice to Absalom was that he immediately pursue and kill David to remove any possibility of his reclaiming the throne, which would incline David's followers to return and submit to Absalom.
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 17:4 all the elders of Israel. The same prominent tribal leaders who had accepted David's kingship in 5:3 had been won over as participants in Absalom's rebellion.
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 17:7–13 Providentially, the Lord took control of the situation through the counsel of Hushai (see note on 15:32) who advised Absalom in such a way as to give David time to prepare for war with Absalom. Hushai's plan seemed best to the elders. It had two features: 1) the need for an army larger than 12,000 (v. 1), so that Absalom would not lose, and 2) the king leading the army into battle (an appeal to Absalom's arrogance).
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 17:11 Dan to Beersheba. See note on 3:10.
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 17:13 ropes. In besieging the town, hooks attached to ropes were cast over the protective wall and, with a large number of men pulling, the walls were pulled down.
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 17:14 the Lord had ordained. The text notes that Ahithophel's advice was rejected by Absalom because the Lord had determined to defeat the rebellion of Absalom, as prayed for by David (15:31). God's providence was controlling all the intrigues among the usurper's counselors.
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 17:16 pass over. Crossing over from the west side to the east side of the Jordan River was the means of protecting David and his people from the immediate onslaught if Ahithophel's plan was followed.
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 17:17 Jonathan and Ahimaaz. Jonathan was the son of the priest Abiathar and Ahimaaz the son of the priest Zadok (15:27). They were designated to take information from Hushai in Jerusalem to David by the Jordan River. En-rogel. A spring in the Kidron Valley on the border between Benjamin
and Judah (Josh. 15:1, 7; 18:11, 16) less than a mile southeast of Jerusalem.
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 17:18 Bahurim. See note on 3:16.
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 17:19 well's mouth. Using an empty cistern as a place for a covering of dry grain was a common practice.
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 17:23 hanged himself. When Ahithophel saw that his counsel to Absalom had not been followed, he took his own life. He probably foresaw Absalom's defeat and knew that he would then be accountable to David for his disloyalty.
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 17:24 Mahanaim. See note on 2:8.
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 17:25 Amasa. Absalom appointed Amasa as commander of the army of Israel, replacing Joab who had accompanied David on his flight from Jerusalem. Amasa was the son of Abigail, either David's sister or his halfsister (1 Chron. 2:17), making him David's nephew. His mother was also the sister of Zeruiah, the mother of Joab. Therefore, Amasa was a cousin of Absalom, Joab, and Abishai. Under his lead, the armies crossed the Jordan (2 Sam. 17:24) into Gilead, the high-eastern area. Sufficient time had passed for building the large army Hushai suggested, and so David had readied himself for the war (see note on 17:7–13).
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 17:27 Shobi. A son of Nahash and brother of Hanun, kings of the Ammonites (10:1–2). Machir. See note on 9:4. Barzillai. An aged, wealthy benefactor of David from Gilead, on the east side of the Jordan (see 19:31–39; 1 Kings 2:7).
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 18:2 A three-pronged attack was a customary military strategy (see Judg. 7:16; 1 Sam. 11:11; 13:17).
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 18:3 You shall not go out. David desired to lead his men into the battle; however, the people recognized that the death of David would mean sure defeat and Absalom would then be secure in the kingship. The people's words echo what Ahithophel had earlier pointed out to Absalom (17:2– 3). So David was persuaded to remain at Mahanaim.
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 18:5 Deal gently. David ordered his three commanders not to harm Absalom. The four uses of "the young man Absalom" (vv. 5, 12, 29, 32)
imply that David sentimentally viewed Absalom as a youthful rebel who could be forgiven.
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 18:6 the forest of Ephraim. A dense forest existed east of the Jordan River and north of the Jabbok River in Gilead, where the battle was waged.
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 18:8 the forest devoured more. Amazingly, because of the density of the trees and the rugged nature of the terrain, the pursuit through the forest resulted in more deaths than the actual combat (see v. 9).
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 18:9 mule. See note on 13:29. his head caught fast in the oak. Either Absalom's neck was caught in a fork formed by two of the branches growing out from a large oak tree or his hair was caught in a tangle of thick branches. The terminology and context (cf. 14:26) favor the latter view.
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 18:10 a certain man. One of David's soldiers, who refused to disobey the order of the king recorded in v. 5 to treat Absalom "gently," had done nothing to the suspended prince.
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 18:11–12 ten . . . thousand. Four ounces and 25 pounds respectively.
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 18:14 alive. The spears of Joab killed Absalom while Joab's armor bearers struck him to make sure that he was dead (v. 15). In this action, Joab disobeyed the explicit order of David (v. 5).
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 18:16 blew the trumpet. Joab recalled his soldiers from the battle (cf. 2:28).
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 18:17 a very great heap of stones. Absalom was buried in a deep pit that was covered over with stones, perhaps symbolic of stoning, which was the legal penalty due to a rebel son (Deut. 21:20–21). A heap of stones often showed that the one buried was a criminal or enemy (Josh. 7:26; 8:29).
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 18:18 set up for himself the pillar. Absalom had memorialized himself by erecting a monument in his own honor (cf. Saul's action in 1 Sam. 15:12). There is today a monument, a tomb in that area, called Absalom's tomb (perhaps on the same site) on which orthodox Jews spit when passing by. King's Valley. Traditionally, the Kidron Valley immediately east of
the city of Jerusalem. no son. According to 2 Sam. 14:27, Absalom had three sons, unnamed in the text, all of whom had died before him.
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 18:19 Ahimaaz. See note on 17:17.
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 18:21 Cushite. Cush was the area south of Egypt.
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 18:27 good man . . . good news. David believed that the choice of the messenger was indicative of the content of the message.
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 18:29 I do not know. Ahimaaz concealed his knowledge of Absalom's death as Joab requested (v. 20).
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 18:32 the young man. The Cushite's reply was not so much indirect as culturally phrased (cf. 1 Sam. 25:26).
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 18:33 my son. Repeated five times in this verse, David lamented the death of Absalom, his son (cf. 19:5). In spite of all the harm that Absalom had caused, David was preoccupied with his personal loss in a melancholy way that seems to be consistent with his weakness as a father. It was an unwarranted zeal for such a worthless son, and a warning about the pitiful results of sin.
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 19:3 the people stole. Because of David's excessive grief, his soldiers returned from battle not as rejoicing victors, but as if they had been humiliated by defeat.
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 19:5 covered with shame . . . your servants. Joab sternly rebuked David for being so absorbed in his personal trauma and failing to appreciate the victory that his men had won for him.
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 19:7 not a man will stay with you this night. Joab, who was the esteemed general of the army, was a dangerous person because of that power. He was also dangerous to David because he had disobeyed his command to spare Absalom, and killed him with no remorse. When he warned David that he would be in deep trouble if he did not immediately express appreciation to his men for their victory, David knew he could be in serious danger.
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 19:8 took his seat in the gate. It was at the gate of Mahanaim that David had reviewed his troops as they had marched out to battle
(18:4). David's sitting in the gate represented a return to his exercise of kingly authority.
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 19:9 arguing. An argument arose in Israel concerning whether David should be returned to the kingship. David's past military victories over the Philistines and the failure of Absalom argued for David's return. Therefore, David's supporters insisted on knowing why their fellow Israelites remained quiet about returning David to his rightful place on the throne in Jerusalem.
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 19:11 elders of Judah. Through the priests who had stayed in Jerusalem during the rebellion, David appealed to the leaders of his own tribe to take the initiative in restoring him to the throne in Jerusalem (see 2:4; 1 Sam. 30:26). Though this appeal produced the desired result, it also led to tribal jealousies (2 Sam. 19:40–43).
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 19:13 Amasa. See note on 17:25. commander of my army . . . in place of Joab. David appointed Amasa commander of his army, hoping to secure the allegiance of those who had followed Amasa when he led Absalom's forces, especially those of Judah. This appointment did persuade the tribe of Judah to support David's return to the kingship (19:14) and secured the animosity of Joab against Amasa for taking his position (cf. 20:8–10).
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 19:15 Gilgal. See note on 1 Sam. 10:8.
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 19:16 Shimei. See note on 16:5–8. Shimei confessed his sin of cursing David and his life was spared, temporarily, for on his deathbed David ordered that Shimei be punished for his crime (1 Kings 2:8–9, 36–46).
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 19:20 house of Joseph. A reference to Ephraim, the descendant of Joseph, a large tribe of Israel that was representative of the 10 northern tribes. Here, even Shimei's tribe Benjamin was included.
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 19:24–30 Mephibosheth. See note on 4:4. Mephibosheth also met David, exhibiting the traditional marks of mourning, and explained that he had not followed David into exile because he had been deceived by his servant Ziba (see 16:1–4). He came to David with great humility, generosity of spirit, and gratitude, recognizing all the good the king had done for him before the evil deception (19:28).
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 19:29 divide the land. David had previously given the estate of Saul to Mephibosheth to be farmed under him by Ziba (9:9–10). Then when David was deceived, he gave it all to Ziba (16:4). Now David decided to divide Saul's estate between Ziba and Mephibosheth since he was either uncertain of the truth of Mephibosheth's story or who was guilty of what, and was too distracted to inquire fully into the matter. It was, in any case, a poor decision to divide the estate between the noble-hearted son of Jonathan and a lying deceiver. Mephibosheth was unselfish and suggested that his disloyal servant take it all—it was enough for him that David was back.
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 19:31–39 Barzillai. See note on 17:27. David offered to let Barzillai live in Jerusalem as his guest, but Barzillai preferred to live out his last years in his own house.
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 19:37 Chimham. Probably a son of Barzillai (see 1 Kings 2:7). It is probable that David gave a part of his personal estate in Bethlehem to this man and his descendants (see Jer. 41:17).
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 19:41 stolen you away. Because only the troops of Judah had escorted David as he crossed over the Jordan River, the 10 northern tribes complained to David that the men of Judah had "kidnapped" him from them.
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 19:42 our close relative. The men of Judah answered the men of Israel by stating that David was a member of their tribe. Nor had they taken advantage of their relationship to the king, as had some from the northern tribes.
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 19:43 ten shares. The men of Israel replied to the men of Judah that they had a greater right to David, since there were 10 northern tribes in contrast to the one tribe of Judah. Contrast the "ten shares" here with the "no portion" in 20:1. despise us. The Israel-Judah hostility evidenced here led to the rebellion of Sheba (20:1–22) and eventually to the division of the united kingdom (1 Kings 12:1–24).
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 20:1 worthless man. See note on 1 Sam. 2:12. Sheba. Though nothing is known of this man, he must have been a person of considerable power and influence to raise so sudden and extensive a sedition. He belonged to Saul's tribe, where adherents of Saul's dynasty were still many, and he could see the disgust of the 10 tribes for Judah's presumption in the restoration. He sought to overturn David's authority in Israel. no portion . . . inheritance. Sheba's declaration that the northern tribes had no part in David's realm was similar to words later used in 1 Kings 12:16 when Israel seceded from the united kingdom under Jeroboam.
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 20:2 Israel withdrew from David. Once the 10 tribes withdrew, Judah was left alone to escort the king to Jerusalem. It seems that the disloyalty of the north continued as long as Sheba lived.
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 20:3 the ten concubines. When David returned to Jerusalem, he confined his concubines to a life of abstinence because of their sexual relations with Absalom (16:21–22).
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 20:4 Amasa. Amasa was Absalom's general (see note on 17:25), whom David promised would be commander of his army after Absalom's death (see note on 19:13). Amasa was installed publicly because David thought it would be seen favorably by the 10 tribes. He was told to assemble an army in three days to end the insurrection started by Sheba, but could not in such a brief time.
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 20:6 Abishai. See note on 2:18. When Amasa failed to follow David's orders, David did not reinstate Joab, his former general who had Absalom killed against David's orders (see 18:5–15), but appointed Joab's brother Abishai as commander of his forces. your lord's servants. Called "Joab's men" in v. 7. Abishai was to take the army of Joab to pursue the rebel leader. Joab went also, determined to take vengeance on his rival Amasa.
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 20:7 the Cherethites and the Pelethites. See note on 1 Sam. 30:14. mighty men. Those men are listed in 2 Sam. 23:8–39.
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 20:8 Gibeon. See note on 2:12. Amasa came to meet them. Having collected some forces, he marched rapidly and came first to Gibeon, thus assuming the role of commander. It is possible that Joab purposely let the sword fall from its sheath as he approached Amasa, in order that stooping
as if to pick up the accidentally fallen weapon, he might salute the new general with his sword already in hand, without generating any suspicion of his intent. He used this ploy to gain the position to stab the new commander, whom he considered as usurping his post.
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 20:9 my brother. See note on 17:25. by the beard. Joab, present with his men, seized Amasa by his beard with his right hand apparently to give the kiss of greeting. Instead, with his left hand, he thrust his sword into Amasa's stomach (cf. 3:27).
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 20:11 one of Joab's young men. Joab was reinstated as commander of David's army by his troops. It is a striking illustration of Joab's influence over the army that he could murder the commander whom David had chosen, a killing right before their eyes, and they would follow him unanimously as their leader in pursuit of Sheba.
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 20:14 Abel of Beth-maacah. I.e., Abel Beth-maacah. About 25 miles north of the Sea of Galilee, 4 miles west of the city of Dan.
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 20:16–19 This woman (probably a prominent judge in the city) was making an appeal based on the laws of warfare in Deut. 20:10 that required the assaulting army to offer peace before making war. She pleaded for Joab to ask the city if they wanted peace and thus avert war (2 Sam. 20:18).
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 20:19 a mother in Israel. This is a reference to a specially honored city or a recognized capital of the region. the heritage of the Lord. This refers to the land of Israel (see 1 Sam. 10:1).
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 20:20–21 The ruthless general was a patriot at heart, who on taking the leader of the insurrection, was ready to end further bloodshed. The woman eagerly responded with the promise of Sheba's head.
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 20:21 hill country of Ephraim. A large, partially forested plateau that extended into the tribal territory of Benjamin from the north.
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 20:22 David could not get rid of Joab, though he hated him. He had to ignore the murder of Amasa and recognize Joab as army commander.
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 20:23–26 Cf. a similar list in 8:15–18.
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 20:24 Adoram. Rendered "Adoniram" in 1 Kings 4:6 and 5:14. He was in charge of the "forced labor," a term used to describe the hard labor imposed on subjugated peoples (Ex. 1:11; Josh. 16:10; Judg. 1:28). Adoram oversaw the forced labor on such projects as the building of highways, temples, and houses.
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 20:25 Sheva. He replaced Seraiah (8:17) as David's secretary.
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 20:26 Ira. He was David's royal adviser.
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 21:1–24:25 This is the final division of 2 Samuel. Like the book of Judges (Judg. 17:1–21:25), it concludes with this epilogue that contains material, not necessarily chronological, that further describes David's reign. There is a striking literary arrangement of the sections in this division of the book. The first and last sections (2 Sam. 21:1–14; 24:1–25) are narratives that describe two occurrences of the Lord's anger against Israel. The second and fifth sections (21:15–22; 23:8–39) are accounts of David's warriors. The third and fourth sections (22:1–51; 23:1–7) record two of David's songs.
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 21:1–14 This event occurred after the display of David's kindness to Mephibosheth (v. 7; cf. 9:1–13) and before Shimei's cursing of David (cf. 16:7–8).
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 21:1 a famine. When Israel experienced three years of famine, David recognized it as divine discipline (cf. Deut. 28:47–48) and sought God for the reason.
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 21:1–2 bloodguilt on Saul and on his house. By divine revelation David learned that the famine was a result of sin committed by Saul; namely, that he had slain the Gibeonites. There is no further reference to this event. Saul was probably trying to do as God commanded and rid the land of the remnant of heathen in order that Israel might prosper (v. 2). But in his zeal he had committed a serious sin; he had broken a covenant that had been made 400 years before between Joshua and the Gibeonites, who were in the land when Israel took possession of it. They deceived Joshua into making the covenant, but it was, nevertheless, a covenant (see Josh. 9:3–27). Covenant keeping was no small matter to God (see Josh. 9:20).
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 21:2 Gibeonites . . . Amorites. Names sometimes used to
designate all the pre-Israelite inhabitants of Canaan (Gen. 15:16; Josh. 24:18; Judg. 6:10). More precisely, the Gibeonites were called Hivites (Josh. 9:7; 11:19).
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 21:3 the heritage of the Lord. See note on 20:19.
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 21:6 seven of his sons. "Seven" symbolized completeness, not necessarily the number of Gibeonites slain by Saul. "Sons" could be either sons or grandsons. Gibeah of Saul. See note on 1 Sam. 11:4.
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 21:7 the oath of the Lord . . . between David and Jonathan. Because Mephibosheth was the son of Jonathan, he was spared in accordance with the covenant between David and Jonathan (1 Sam. 20:14–15) and also between David and Saul (see note on 1 Sam. 24:22).
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 21:8 Rizpah. Saul's concubine (see 3:7). Mephibosheth. A son of Saul, different from the son of Jonathan with the same name. Merab. Merab was the mother of these five sons. She was the wife of Adriel (1 Sam. 18:19). Barzillai the Meholathite. A different man than Barzillai the Gileadite (2 Sam. 17:27; 19:31).
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 21:9 before the Lord. These pagans were not bound by the law of Deut. 21:22–23, which forbade leaving a dead body hanging over night. Their intention was to let the bodies hang until God signaled he was satisfied and sent rain to end the famine. Such a heathen practice, designed to propitiate their gods, was a superstition of these Gibeonites. God, in his providence, allowed this memorable retaliation as a lesson about keeping covenants and promises. the beginning of barley harvest. April (see Ruth 1:22).
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 21:10 sackcloth . . . spread. Rizpah erected a tent nearby to keep watch over the bodies, to scare away birds and beasts. It was considered a disgrace for the bodies of the slain to become food for the birds and beasts (cf. Deut. 28:26; 1 Sam. 17:44–46; Rev. 19:17–18). rain fell upon them. An unseasonably late spring or early summer shower. Possibly, the rain that ended the drought.
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 21:11–14 Finally, after the rain had come, David, encouraged by the example of the woman's devotion to her dead family members, ordered the remains of Saul and Jonathan transferred from their obscure grave in Jabesh-gilead (cf. 1 Sam. 31:11–12), along with the seven sons'
bones, to the honorable family grave in Zela (cf. Josh. 18:28; 1 Sam. 10:2, "Zelzah"). This location is unknown.
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 21:14 God responded to the plea. The famine ended, and God restored the land to prosperity.
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 21:15–22 This section describes the defeat of four Philistine giants at the hands of David and his men. Though these events cannot be located chronologically with any certainty, the narratives of victory provide a fitting preface to David's song of praise, which magnifies God's deliverance (22:1–51). See 1 Chron. 20:4–8.
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 21:16 the giants. The Hebrew term used in vv. 16, 18, 20, 22 is rapha. This was a term used collectively for the "Rephaim" who inhabited the land of Canaan and were noted for their inordinate size (cf. Gen. 15:19–21; Num. 13:33; Deut. 2:11; 3:11–13). The term "Rephaim" was used of the people called the "Anakim" (Deut. 2:10–11, 20–21), distinguished for their size and strength. According to Josh. 11:21–22 the "Anakim" were driven from the hill country of Israel and Judah, but remained in the Philistine cities of Gaza, Gath, and Ashdod. Though the Philistines had succumbed to the power of Israel's army, the appearance of some great champion revived their courage and invited their hope for victory against the Israelite invaders. three hundred shekels. Approximately 7.5 lbs. a new sword. Lit., "a new thing." The weapon was not specified.
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 21:17 Abishai. See note on 2:18. lamp of Israel. David, who with God's help brought the light of prosperity and well-being to the whole land of Israel, was the symbol of Israel's hope and promise of security. Continued blessing resided in David and his house.
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 21:18 Gob. Near Gezer (cf. 1 Chron. 20:4), about 22 miles west of Jerusalem.
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 21:19 Elhanan . . . struck down Goliath. The minor scribal omission of "the brother of " (in the Hebrew) belongs in this verse, based on 1 Chron. 20:5 which includes them, and because clearly the Scripture says that David killed Goliath as recorded in 1 Sam. 17:50. There has probably been a scribal error in the text which should read, "Elhanan . . . killed the brother of Goliath." A second possible solution is that Elhanan and David may be different
names for the same person, just as Solomon had another name (cf. 2 Sam. 12:24–25). A third solution is perhaps that there were two giants named Goliath.
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 21:20 Gath. About 12 miles south of Geza and 26 miles southwest of Jerusalem.
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 21:21 Jonathan. David's nephew, the son of Shimeah, also called Shammah in 1 Sam. 16:9, different from the son of Saul.
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 22:1–51 David's song of praise here is almost identical to Ps. 18. This song also has many verbal links to Hannah's prayer (see note on 1 Sam. 2:1–10) and together with it forms the framework for the books of Samuel. This song focuses on the Lord's deliverance of David from all his enemies, in response to which David praised the Lord, his deliverer (2 Sam. 22:2–4). The major part of the song (vv. 5–46) states the reason for this praise of the Lord. David first describes how the Lord had delivered him from his enemies (vv. 5– 20), then declares why the Lord had delivered him from his enemies (vv. 21–28), then states the extent of the Lord's deliverance from his enemies (vv. 29–46). The song concludes with David's resolve to praise his delivering Lord, even among the Gentiles (vv. 47–51). See notes on Ps. 18:1–50 for a more detailed explanation.
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 22:1 all his enemies. Cf. 7:1–9 and 11. David composed this song toward the end of his life when the Lord had given him a settled kingdom and the promise of the Messianic seed embodied in the Davidic Covenant.
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 22:2–4 This introduction contains the sum and substance of the whole psalm, as David extols God as his defense, refuge, and deliverer in the many experiences of his agitated life.
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 22:2 rock. See notes on 1 Sam. 2:2 and Deut. 32:4.
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 22:3 shield. See Gen. 15:1 and Deut. 33:29. horn. See note on 1 Sam. 2:1. stronghold. A secure, lofty retreat that the enemy finds inaccessible. As such, the Lord is the refuge of his chosen one, secure from all hostile attacks.
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 22:5–7 David described how he cried to the Lord in the midst of his distress.
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 22:5–6 death. Pictured as violent floods of water like waves ready to break over him and traps set by a hunter to snare him, David faced the reality of imminent death in his personal experience, most frequently when pursued by Saul, but also in Absalom's conspiracy and in certain wars (see 21:16).
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 22:7 distress. The particular trouble David was referring to was the potential of his imminent death (vv. 5–6). his temple. God's heavenly dwelling place (cf. Ps. 11:4; 29:9).
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 22:8–16 In reaffirming the great majesty of God, David described his coming in power from heaven to earth (cf. Ex. 19:16–20; Ezek. 1:4–28; Hab. 3:3–15).
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 22:14 The Lord thundered. See note on 1 Sam. 7:10.
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 22:17–20 In personalizing what he just said in vv. 8–16, David explained how God reached down from heaven to save him on the earth.
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 22:20 he delighted in me. This expression that the Lord was "pleased" with David (cf. 15:26) provided a transition to 22:21–28, where David described the basis of God's saving deliverance.
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 22:21–25 David was not claiming to be righteous or sinless in any absolute sense. Rather, David believed God, was considered righteous by faith, and desired to please the Lord and be obedient to his commands. Thus he was blameless when compared with his enemies.
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 22:26–28 David stated the basic principles that the Lord follows in delivering or judging people.
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 22:28 humble . . . haughty. For the idea that the Lord saves the humble, but brings low the proud, see also 1 Sam. 2:4–7.
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 22:29–46 Empowered by God (vv. 29–37), David was able to gain total victory over his enemies (vv. 38–43), both in Israel and throughout the nations (vv. 44–46).
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 22:29 my lamp. David as the "lamp" of Israel (see note on 21:17) reflected the light of the glory of God, who was the "Lamp" of David
himself.
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 22:50 Paul quotes this in Rom. 15:9.
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 22:51 his king . . . his anointed. These terms are singular and thus do not seem to refer to David and his descendants. Rather they refer to the promised "descendant," the Messiah of 7:12. The deliverance and ultimate triumph of David foreshadow that of the coming Messiah. At the end of his life, David looked back in faith at God's promises and forward in hope to their fulfillment in the coming of a future "king," the "anointed one" (see notes on 1 Sam. 2:10).
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 23:1–7 last words. This is David's final literary legacy to Israel, not his final oral speech (see 1 Kings 2:1–10).
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 23:1 the oracle. "Declares as an oracle" (cf. Num. 24:3, 15; 1 Sam. 2:30; Prov. 30:1). David realized that the psalms he wrote, as directed by the Holy Spirit, were the very word of God.
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 23:2 Spirit. God's Holy Spirit is the divine instrument of revelation and inspiration (cf. Zech. 7:12; 2 Tim. 3:16–17; 2 Pet. 1:19–21).
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 23:3–4 one rules. These words begin the record of direct speech from God, whose ideal king must exercise his authority with justice, in complete submission to divine sovereignty. Such a king is like the helpful rays of sun at dawn and the life-giving showers that nourish the earth. This ideal king was identified in the OT as the coming Messiah (cf. Isa. 9:6–7).
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 23:5 does not my house stand so with God? In response to God's standard for his ideal king, David confessed that his house had not always ruled over God's people in righteousness and in the fear of God, and thus was not the fulfillment of 7:12–16. Further, none of the kings of David's line (according to 1 and 2 Kings) met God's standard of righteous obedience. everlasting covenant. The promise given by the Lord to David recorded in 2 Sam. 7:12–16 is here referred to as a "covenant," a binding agreement from the Lord that he will fulfill. In spite of the fact that David and his own household had failed (chs. 9–20), David rightly believed that the Lord would not fail, but would be faithful to his promise of hope for the future in the descendant of David, the Eternal King, the anointed one (see note on 7:12), who would establish a kingdom of righteousness and peace forever.
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 23:6 worthless. Lit., "Belial" (see note on 1 Sam. 2:12). The wicked enemies of God will be cast aside in judgment when the Messiah, the fulfillment of the Davidic Covenant, establishes his rule upon the earth (cf. Isa. 63:1–6).
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 23:8–39 This fifth inset recalls David's mighty men. See 1 Chron. 11:10–41.
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 23:8 the mighty men. David's bravest warriors and most outstanding soldiers are memorialized. This list appears in 1 Chron. 11:11–41, with slight variations. According to 1 Chron. 11:10, these men helped David to become king. The listing of these men is presented in three sets: first, "the three" (2 Sam. 23:8–12); second, two more honored other than "the thirty," but not attaining to "the three" (vv. 18–23); third, "the thirty" which is actually 32 (vv. 24–39). This list is expanded by 16 names in 1 Chron. 11:41–47. eight hundred. Probably a textual error. 1 Chron. 11:11 has "three hundred," the likely number.
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 23:13–17 three of the thirty. Three of the soldiers mentioned in vv. 34–39.
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 23:13 cave of Adullam. See note on 1 Sam. 22:1. valley of Rephaim. See note on 5:18.
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 23:14 stronghold. See note on 2 Sam. 22:3.
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 23:16 poured it out to the Lord. Because David's men brought him water from Bethlehem's well at the risk of their own lives, he considered it as "blood" and refused to drink it. Instead, he poured it out on the ground as a sacrifice to the Lord (cf. Gen. 35:14; Ex. 30:9; Lev. 23:13, 18, 37).
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 23:18 Abishai. See note on 2:18.
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 23:20 Benaiah. See note on 8:18.
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 23:24 Asahel. See note on 2:18.
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 23:24–39 thirty. A technical term for a small military contingent, named "the thirty" since it usually consisted of around 30 men, whereas 32 men are listed here, counting Joab.
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 23:39 Uriah. Here is inserted a mention of one of David's great soldiers, a reminder of David's great sin (11:1–27), and a preparation for David's further failure recorded in 24:1–10. thirty-seven. The three (23:8–12) with Abishai (vv. 18–19) and Benaiah (vv. 20–23) plus the 32 men of "the thirty" (vv. 24–39).
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 24:1–17 See notes on 1 Chron. 21:1–16.
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 24:1 Again. A second outbreak of the divine wrath occurred after the three-year famine recorded in 21:1. against Israel. The inciting of David to conduct a census was a punishment on Israel from the Lord for some unspecified sins. Perhaps sins of pride and ambition had led him to increase the size of his army unnecessarily and place heavy burdens of support on the people. Whatever the sin, it is clear God was dissatisfied with David's motives, goals, and actions and brought judgment. he incited David. See note on 1 Chron. 21:1. number Israel and Judah. A census was usually for military purposes, which seems to be the case here (see 2 Sam. 24:9). Numbering the potential army of Israel had been done in the past (Num. 1:1–2; 26:1–4). However, this census of Israel's potential army did not have the sanction of the Lord and proceeded from wrong motives. David either wanted to glory in the size of his fighting force or take more territory than what the Lord had granted him. He shifted his trust from God to military power (this is a constant theme in the Psalms; cf. Ps. 20:7; 25:2; 44:6).
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 24:2 from Dan to Beersheba. A proverbial statement for all the land of Israel from north to south.
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 24:3 but why . . . ? Although Joab protested the plan, he was overruled by David with no reason for the census being stated by David.
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 24:5 Aroer. The census began about 14 miles east of the Dead Sea on the northern bank of the Arnon River, in the southeastern corner of Israel, and continued in a counterclockwise direction through the land. Jazer. A town in the territory of Gad about 6 miles west of Rabbah. Jazer was close to the border of the Ammonite territory.
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 24:6 Gilead. The Transjordan territory north of Gad. Dan. See esv footnote, "Dan-jaan." Either a village near the town of Dan or a fuller name for Dan itself. Dan is 25 miles north of the Sea of Galilee.
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 24:7 Tyre. The census takers seem to have gone north from Dan and then west toward Sidon before turning south toward Tyre, a city on the coast of the Mediterranean Sea ruled by David's friend Hiram (see note on 5:11), but remaining in Israelite territory. Beersheba. A major settlement in the south of the land of Israel located about 45 miles southwest of Jerusalem.
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 24:9 800,000 . . . 500,000. First Chronicles 21:5 has "1,100,000" and "470,000," respectively. A solution can be found in seeing the 1 Chronicles figure including all the available men of military age, whether battle seasoned or not. But the 2 Samuel figure could be 800,000 battle-seasoned soldiers with the additional 300,000 being of military age who were in reserve but never fought, or it could be the 288,000 in the standing army (1 Chron. 27:1– 15) rounded off to 300,000. Either of these two contingents would make up the 1.1 million number of 1 Chron. 21. As far as Judah was concerned, the number in 2 Samuel is 30,000 more than the 1 Chronicles figure. First Chronicles makes it clear that the numbering was not completed by Joab, because he didn't get to the census regarding Benjamin (or Levi) before David came under conviction about completing it all. Joab was glad to stop when he saw the king's changed heart. Because of the procedure selected (see note on 2 Sam. 24:5) the numbering of Benjamin would have been last, so their number was not included. In the record of 2 Samuel the figure for Judah included the already-known number of 30,000 troops from Benjamin, hence the total of 500,000. The Benjamites remained loyal to David and Judah.
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 24:10 David's heart struck him. Although God's prohibition is not clear in the text, it was clear to David. sinned greatly . . . done very foolishly. David recognized the enormity of his willful rebellion against God. David's insight saw the seriousness of his error in relying on numerical strength instead of on the Lord, who can deliver by many or few (see 1 Sam. 14:6).
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 24:11 Gad. See note on 1 Sam. 22:5.
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 24:13 famine . . . foes . . . pestilence. David was given a choice of three possible punishments for his sin of numbering the people: 1) seven years of famine in Israel (see note on 1 Chron. 21:12); 2) three months of fleeing from his enemies; or 3) three days of pestilence in the land. Implicit in the threat of pursuit by "foes" was death by the sword. Famine, sword, and plague were OT punishments of the Lord against his sinful people (Lev. 26:23–
26; Deut. 28:21–26; Jer. 14:12).
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 24:14 fall into the hand of the Lord. David knew that the Lord would be more merciful than his enemies, so he took the third option.
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 24:16 relented. Or "repented, grieved," an expression of God's deep sorrow concerning man's sin and evil (see 1 Sam. 15:11, 29). Araunah the Jebusite. Araunah (or Ornan) was a pre-Israelite inhabitant of Jerusalem. He owned a threshing floor north of the citadel of Jerusalem and outside its fortified area.
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 24:17 let your hand be against me. Rather than witness the further destruction of his people, David called down the wrath upon himself and his own family (cf. Ex. 32:32).
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 24:18–25 See 1 Chron. 21:18–27.
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 24:18 altar. At this time, the altar associated with the tabernacle of Moses was located at Gibeon (1 Chron. 21:29; 2 Chron. 1:2–6). David was instructed by Gad to build another altar to the Lord at the place where the plague had stopped. This indicated where the Lord's choice was for the building of his temple.
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 24:24 cost me nothing. Sacrifice is an essential part of worship and service to God (see Mal 1:6–10; 2 Cor. 8:1–5). fifty shekels. A little more than a pound of silver. First Chronicles 21:25 says David paid 600 shekels of gold. How is this discrepancy resolved? In the initial transaction, David either bought or leased the small threshing floor (usually 30 or 40 feet square) and purchased the oxen. Fifty shekels of silver was appropriate. After that, 1 Chron. 21:25 says he bought "the site," costing 180 times as much, and referring to the entire area of Mount Moriah.
2 SAMUEL—NOTE ON 24:25 the plague was averted. This indicates that judgment is not the final action of the Lord toward either Israel or the house of David. God will fulfill the Abrahamic and Davidic Covenants (cf. Ezek. 37).
1 Kings
1 Kings 1 • 1 Kings 2 • 1 Kings 3 • 1 Kings 4 • 1 Kings 5 • 1 Kings 6 • 1 Kings 7 • 1 Kings 8 • 1 Kings 9 • 1 Kings 10 • 1 Kings 11 • 1 Kings 12 • 1 Kings 13 • 1 Kings 14 • 1 Kings 15 • 1 Kings 16 • 1 Kings 17 • 1 Kings 18 • 1 Kings 19 • 1 Kings 20 • 1 Kings 21 • 1 Kings 22 Introduction to 1 Kings
Title Author and Date Background and Setting Historical and Theological Themes Interpretive Challenges Outline Footnotes Study Notes
Introduction to 1 Kings
Title
First and Second kIngs were originally one book, called in the Hebrew text, "Kings," from the first word in 1:1. The Greek translation of the OT, the Septuagint (LXX), divided the book in two, and this was followed by the Latin Vulgate (Vulgate) version and English translations. The division was for the convenience of copying this lengthy book on scrolls and codexes and was not based on features of content. Modern Hebrew Bibles title the books "Kings A" and "Kings B." The LXX and Vulgate connected Kings with the books of Samuel, so that the titles in the LXX are "The Third and Fourth Books of Kingdoms" and in the Vulgate "Third and Fourth Kings." The books of 1 and 2 Samuel and 1 and 2 Kings combined are a chronicle of the entire history of Judah's and Israel's kingship from Saul to Zedekiah. First and Second Chronicles provide only the history of Judah's monarchy.
Author and Date
Jewish tradition proposed that Jeremiah wrote Kings, though this is unlikely because the final event recorded in the book (see 2 Kings 25:27–30) occurred in Babylon in 561 B.C. Jeremiah never went to Babylon, but to Egypt (Jer. 43:1–7), and would have been at least 86 years old by 561 B.C. Actually, the identity of the unnamed author remains unknown. Since the ministry of prophets is emphasized in Kings, it seems that the author was most likely an unnamed prophet of the Lord who lived in exile with Israel in Babylon.
Kings was written between 561–538 B.C. Since the last narrated event (2 Kings 25:27–30) sets the earliest possible date of completion and because there is no record of the end of the Babylonian captivity in Kings, the release from exile (538 B.C.) identifies the latest possible writing date. This date is sometimes challenged on the basis of "to this day" statements in 1 Kings 8:8; 9:13, 20, 21; 10:12; 12:19; 2 Kings 2:22; 8:22; 10:27; 14:7; 16:6; 17:23, 34, 41; 21:15. However, it is best to understand these statements as those of the sources used by the author, rather than statements of the author himself.
It is clear that the author used a variety of sources in compiling this book,
including "the Book of the Acts of Solomon" (1 Kings 11:41), "the Book of the Chronicles of the Kings of Israel" (1 Kings 14:19; 15:31; 16:5, 14, 20, 27; 22:39; 2 Kings 1:18; 10:34; 13:8, 12; 14:15, 28; 15:11, 15, 21, 26, 31), and "the Book of the Chronicles of the Kings of Judah" (1 Kings 14:29; 15:7, 23; 22:45; 2 Kings 8:23; 12:19; 14:18; 15:6, 36; 16:19; 20:20; 21:17, 25; 23:28; 24:5). Further, Isa. 36:1–39:8 provided information used in 2 Kings 18:9–20:19, and Jer. 52:31–34 seems to be the source for 2 Kings 25:27–29. This explanation posits a single inspired author, living in Babylon during the exile, using these preexilic source materials at his disposal.
Background and Setting
A distinction must be made between the setting of the books' sources and that of the books' author. The source material was written by participants in and eyewitnesses of the events. It was reliable information that was historically accurate concerning the sons of Israel, from the death of David and the accession of Solomon (971 B.C.) to the destruction of the temple and Jerusalem by the Babylonians (586 B.C.). Thus, Kings traces the histories of two sets of kings and two nations of disobedient people, Israel and Judah, both of whom were growing indifferent to God's law and his prophets and were headed for captivity.
The book of Kings is not only accurate history, but interpreted history. The author, an exile in Babylon, wished to communicate the lessons of Israel's history to the exiles. Specifically, he taught the exilic community why the Lord's judgment of exile had come. The writer established early in his narrative that the Lord required obedience by the kings to the Mosaic law, if their kingdom was to receive his blessing; disobedience would bring exile (1 Kings 9:3–9). The sad reality that history revealed was that all the kings of Israel and the majority of the kings of Judah "did evil in the sight of the Lord." These evil kings were apostates, who led their people to sin by not confronting idolatry, but sanctioning it. Because of the kings' failure, the Lord sent his prophets to confront both the monarchs and the people with their sin and their need to return to him. Because the message of the prophets was rejected, the prophets foretold that the nation(s) would be carried into exile (2 Kings 17:13–23; 21:10–15). Like every prophecy uttered by the prophets in Kings, this word from the Lord came to pass (2 Kings 17:5–6; 25:1–11). Therefore, Kings interpreted the people's experience of exile and helped them to see why they had suffered God's punishment for idolatry. It also explained that just as God had shown mercy to Ahab (1 Kings 22:27–29)
and Jehoiachin (2 Kings 25:27–30), so he was willing to show them mercy.
The predominant geographical setting of Kings is the whole land of Israel, from Dan to Beersheba (1 Kings 4:25), including Transjordan. Four invading nations played a dominant role in the affairs of Israel and Judah from 971 to 561 B.C. In the tenth century B.C., Egypt impacted Israel's history during the reigns of Solomon and Rehoboam (1 Kings 3:1; 11:14–22, 40; 12:2; 14:25–27). Syria (Aram) posed a great threat to Israel's security during the ninth century B.C., c. 890–800 B.C. (1 Kings 15:9–22; 20:1–34; 22:1–4, 29–40; 2 Kings 6:8–7:20; 8:7– 15; 10:32–33; 12:17–18; 13:22–25). The years from c. 800 to 750 B.C. were a half-century of peace and prosperity for Israel and Judah, because Assyria neutralized Syria and did not threaten to the south. This changed during the kingship of Tiglath-pileser III (2 Kings 15:19, 20, 29). From the mid-eighth century to the late seventh century B.C., Assyria terrorized Palestine, finally conquering and destroying Israel (the northern kingdom) in 722 B.C. (2 Kings 17:4–6) and besieging Jerusalem in 701 B.C. (2 Kings 18:17–19:37). From 612 to 539 B.C., Babylon was the dominant power in the ancient world. Babylon invaded Judah (the southern kingdom) three times, with the destruction of Jerusalem and the temple occurring in 586 B.C. during that third assault (2 Kings 24:1–25:21).
Historical and Theological Themes
Kings concentrates, then, on the history of the sons of Israel from 971 to 561 B.C. First Kings 1:1–11:43 deals with Solomon's accession and reign (971–931 B.C.). The two divided kingdoms of Israel and Judah (931–722 B.C.) are covered in 1 Kings 12:1; 2 Kings 17:41. The author arranged the material in a distinctive way in that the narration follows the kings in both the north and the south. For each reign described, there is the following literary framework. Every king is introduced with: 1) his name and relation to his predecessor; 2) his date of accession in relationship to the year of the contemporary ruler in the other kingdom; 3) his age on coming to the throne (for kings of Judah only); 4) his length of reign; 5) his place of reign; 6) his mother's name (for Judah only); and 7) spiritual appraisal of his reign. This introduction is followed by a narration of the events that occurred during the reign of each king. The details of this narration vary widely. Each reign is concluded with: 1) a citation of sources; 2) additional historical notes; 3) notice of death; 4) notice of burial; 5) the name of the successor; and 6) in a few instances, an added postscript (e.g., 1 Kings 15:32;
2 Kings 10:36). Second Kings 18:1–25:21 deals with the time when Judah survived alone (722–586 B.C.). Two concluding paragraphs speak of events after the Babylonian exile (2 Kings 25:22–26, 27–30).
Three theological themes are stressed in Kings. First, the Lord judged Israel and Judah because of their disobedience to his law (2 Kings 17:7–23). This unfaithfulness on the part of the people was furthered by the apostasy of the evil kings who led them into idolatry (2 Kings 17:21–22; 21:11), so the Lord exercised his righteous wrath against his rebellious people. Second, the word of the true prophets came to pass (1 Kings 13:2–3; 22:15–28; 2 Kings 23:16; 24:2). This confirmed that the Lord did keep his word, even his warnings of judgment. Third, the Lord remembered his promise to David (1 Kings 11:12–13, 34–36; 15:4; 2 Kings 8:19). Even though the kings of the Davidic line proved themselves to be disobedient to the Lord, he did not bring David's family to an end as he did the families of Jeroboam I, Omri, and Jehu in Israel. Even as the book closes, the line of David still exists (2 Kings 25:27–30), so there is hope for the coming "seed" of David (see 2 Sam. 7:12–16). The Lord is thus seen as faithful, and his word is trustworthy.
Interpretive Challenges
The major interpretive challenge in Kings concerns the chronology of the kings of Israel and Judah. Though abundant chronological data is presented in the book of Kings, this data is difficult to interpret for two reasons. First, there seems to be internal inconsistency in the information given. For instance, 1 Kings 16:23 states that Omri, king of Israel, began to reign in the thirty-first year of Asa, king of Judah, and that he reigned 12 years. But according to 1 Kings 16:29, Omri was succeeded by his son Ahab in the thirty-eighth year of Asa, giving Omri a reign of only seven years, not 12 (for resolution, see note on 1 Kings 16:23). Second, from extrabiblical sources (Greek, Assyrian, and Babylonian), correlated with astronomical data, a reliable series of dates can be calculated from 892 to 566 B.C. Since Ahab and Jehu, kings of Israel, are believed to be mentioned in Assyrian records, 853 B.C. can be fixed as the year of Ahab's death and 841 B.C. as the year Jehu began to reign. With these fixed dates, it is possible to work backward and forward to determine that the date of the division of Israel from Judah was c. 931 B.C., the fall of Samaria 722 B.C., and the fall of Jerusalem 586 B.C. But when the total years of royal reigns in Kings are added, the number for Israel is 241 years (not the 210 years of 931 to 722
B.C.) and Judah 393 years (not the 346 years of 931 to 586 B.C.). It is recognized that in both kingdoms there were some co-regencies, i.e., a period of rulership when two kings, usually father and son, ruled at the same time, so the overlapping years were counted twice in the total for both kings. Further, different methods of reckoning the years of a king's rule and even different calendars were used at differing times in the two kingdoms, resulting in the seeming internal inconsistencies. The general accuracy of the chronology in Kings can be demonstrated and confirmed.
A second major interpretive challenge deals with Solomon's relationship to the Abrahamic and Davidic Covenants. First Kings 4:20–21 has been interpreted by some as the fulfillment of the promises given to Abraham (cf. Gen. 15:18–21; 22:17). However, according to Num. 34:6, the western border of the land promised to Abraham was the Mediterranean Sea. In 1 Kings 5:1ff., Hiram is seen as the independent king of Tyre (along the Mediterranean), dealing with Solomon as an equal. Solomon's empire was not the fulfillment of the land promise given to Abraham by the Lord, although a great portion of that land was under Solomon's control. Further, the statements of Solomon in 1 Kings 5:5 and 8:20 are his claims to be the promised seed of the Davidic Covenant (cf. 2 Sam. 7:12–16). The author of Kings holds out the possibility that Solomon's temple was the fulfillment of the Lord's promise to David. However, while the conditions for the fulfillment of the promise to David are reiterated to Solomon (1 Kings 6:12), it is clear that Solomon did not meet these conditions (1 Kings 11:9–13). In fact, none of the historical kings in the house of David met the condition of complete obedience that was to be the sign of the Promised One. According to Kings, the fulfillment of the Abrahamic and Davidic Covenants did not take place in Israel's past, thus laying the foundation for the latter prophets (Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and the Twelve) who would point Israel to a future hope under Messiah when the covenants would be fulfilled (see Isa. 9:6–7).
Outline
Since the division of 1 and 2 Kings arbitrarily takes place in the middle of the narrative concerning King Ahaziah in Israel, the following outline is for both 1 and 2 Kings.
I. The United Kingdom: The Reign of Solomon (1 Kings 1:1–11:43)
A. The Rise of Solomon (1 Kings 1:1–2:46)