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THE GLORY OF GOD ALONE:
LUTHER ON VOCATION
Christians today often struggle over how they can have a strong marriage and how they can be good parents. They worry about the extent to which they should get involved in politics. They wonder how Christians can exercise some kind of influence on the culture as their forebears did. On another level, many Christians just feel beaten down by the world. They feel their spiritual lives getting pushed to the margins by the pressures of having to make a living, the endless family obligations, and the mundane demands of everyday life. Some Christians compartmentalize their lives, cultivating a Sunday-morning piety that has little to do with the other six days of the week. Others attempt valiantly to live out their faith in every dimension of their lives, but they are not sure how to do that. Is it by witnessing all the time, to customers, colleagues, employees, and passersby? Is there a certain way of being a Christian office worker, factory hand, or service provider? Don’t we have to do pretty much the same thing as the non-Christians in all of these fields?
Christians resolve these conflicts in different ways. Some embrace the world, becoming worldly. Others escape the world, becoming otherworldly. The biblical principle of being “in the world” without being “of the world” (John 17:13–18) is confusing and seems impossible to realize.
How to live faithfully in the world is, of course, a perennial challenge in the Christian life. But few Christians today realize that these puzzles were largely resolved, both biblically and practically, by Reformation theology. All of these modern difficulties—in families, the workplace, the culture—are definitively addressed and in many cases solved by the doctrine of vocation.
Luther’s doctrine of vocation is one of his most important contributions to the Christian church, next only to his reemphasis on the gospel and on the Word of God. John Calvin and the other Reformers embraced what Luther taught about vocation, with Calvin, as we shall see, applying it in some innovative ways. But strangely, over the last few centuries, vocation has largely faded from memory, even for Reformation Christians. Where it has been remembered, the doctrine of vocation has often been shrunk into a narrow little category—having to do with how you perform your job—as opposed to what it was for Luther and Calvin—namely, the theology of the Christian life.
For Luther, the doctrine of vocation has to do with God’s providence, how He governs and cares for His creation. Vocation is at the heart of Luther’s ethics and is the locus for the good works that are the fruits of faith. Vocation for Luther is where we grow in sanctification, where we bear the crosses that drive us to prayer and build our faith, where we love and serve our neighbors, and 1 Far from being an abstract where we live out the implications of the gospel. explanation or some theoretical point of dogma, vocation is eminently practical, giving specific guidance for everyday life and the problems that arise.
The doctrine of vocation was the impetus and inspiration for the enormous social and cultural changes brought on by the Reformation—in the new spiritual value placed upon the family, the goal of universal education, the unparalleled social mobility, new ventures in economics and government— and it has the potential to spark a similar social reformation today. But its spiritual implications are of greater importance. Vocation, after all, is simply the Latinate word for “calling,” and learning again how to respond to God’s call in every dimension of our lives—including what seems most ordinary— will spark a reformation of Christian spirituality.
Vocation and God’s Providence
Vocation is not just about what we are to do, though it includes that. For Luther, vocation is first of all about what God does. We often talk about what God is doing in our lives; vocation is about what God is doing through our lives. God bestows His gifts—such as physical life, daily bread, earthly protection, the teaching of His Word—primarily by means of human beings’ carrying out their vocations (such as, for these examples, parents, farmers, magistrates, and pastors).
Vocations, according to Luther, are “masks of God.” We see our parents who gave us life, the farmer who grew the grain that went into the bread we ate for breakfast, the police officers who protect us from crime, and the pastor who preached the gospel that we received in faith. But looming behind them is God Himself, who works through them. God hides Himself—that is, He is present but not visible—in the ordinary human beings who bless us by their actions day by day. And He hides Himself in us to bless others through our actions. As Luther says in his commentary on Psalm 147:
What else is all our work to God—whether in the fields, in the garden, in the city, in the house, in war, or in government—but just such a child’s performance, by which He wants to give His gifts in the fields, at home, and everywhere else? These are the masks of God, behind which He wants to remain concealed and do all things. Had Gideon done nothing but take the field against Midian, the Midianites would not have been beaten; and God could certainly have beaten them without Gideon. He could give children without using men and women. But He does not want to do this. Instead, He joins man and woman so that it appears to be the work of man and woman, and yet He does it under the cover of such masks.
Luther emphasized that God works through means—the Word and sacraments in His spiritual kingdom, and vocation and His created order in His earthly kingdom. God does not have to work through means. He created Adam from the dust and Eve from Adam’s body, rather than from a father and a mother. When the Israelites were in the wilderness, He gave them manna as their daily bread, rather than having it come from farmers, millers, and bakers. But God has chosen to give His gifts primarily and usually through other people. Today, though He might perform a miraculous healing, more normally He heals by means of doctors, nurses, pharmacists, and other medical professionals. But a person who is healed by physicians should still thank God for the healing, just as we should thank God at every meal for the food He provides by means of those who prepared it.
Our vocations are multiple, according to Luther, and God calls us to service in the four “estates” that He has built into creation as institutions that make human life possible: the church, the household, the state, and the “common order of Christian love.” These—and not the man-made orders of monasticism—are 3 In the estate “the holy orders and true religious institutions established by God.” of the church,
All who are engaged in the clerical office or ministry of the Word are in a holy, proper, good, and God-pleasing order and estate, such as those who preach, administer sacraments, supervise the common chest, sextons and messengers or servants who serve such persons. These are engaged in works which are altogether holy in God’s sight.
Thus, Luther, while critiquing monasticism, affirmed the local congregation, with its parish pastor and other church workers who serve God’s people, as opposed to the monks who withdraw from them in pursuit of their own private holiness.
But whereas the church had been considered as the only arena for a life of perfect holiness—reserved for those who “had a vocation,” a special calling to be a priest, a monk, or a nun—Luther insisted that the other estates are likewise realms of vocation and holiness:
All fathers and mothers who regulate their household wisely and bring up their children to the service of God are engaged in pure holiness, in a holy work and a holy order. Similarly, when children and servants show obedience to their elders and masters, here too is pure holiness, and whoever is thus engaged is a living saint on earth.
The estate of the household includes above all the family, which itself contains multiple callings: husbands and wives in marriage; fathers and mothers in fatherhood and motherhood; sons and daughters in childhood. Luther included in this estate the labor by which households make their livings. In the sixteenth century, long before the Industrial Revolution, work was largely centered in the home. Peasant farmers, shopkeepers, and craftsmen such shoemakers and blacksmiths all plied their trades in their homes, with the entire family pitching in. Luther’s understanding of the interconnectedness of the family and the work it pursues is reflected in the Greek word oikonomia, meaning “the management 6 the term from which we and the regulation of the resources of the household,” derive our word economy. Thus, the estate of the household includes both the family vocations and the vocations of the workplace.
The third estate is that of the civil government, the state, which includes, more generally, the society and the culture: “Moreover, princes and lords, judges, civil officials, notaries, male and female servants and all who serve such persons, and further, all their obedient subjects—all are engaged in pure holiness 7 Not just government officials but “all their and leading a holy life before God.” obedient subjects”—that is, all members of a particular society— have a calling as citizens, which is a vocation of “pure holiness.”
And then Luther goes beyond the specific roles God has given us to play in this world to an overarching estate: “Above these three institutions and orders is the common order of Christian love, in which one serves not only the three orders, but also serves every needy person in general with all kinds of benevolent deeds, such as feeding the hungry, giving drink to the thirsty, forgiving enemies, praying for all men on earth, suffering all kinds of evil on 8 Here is another of Luther’s great phrases: “the common order of earth, etc.”
Christian love.” This is the realm of informal human interactions—friendships, conflicts, occasions for compassion—in which God also calls us to serve others.
Vocation and Good Works
Under medieval Catholicism, someone who wanted to live a pure and holy life would seek a “vocation” in a religious order. But that required (and still requires) a vow of celibacy, thus repudiating the vocations of marriage, parenthood, and the family. It also required a vow of poverty, thus repudiating the economic vocations. It also required a vow of obedience, which involved at that time coming under the authority of the church hierarchy instead of the civil authorities. In rejecting the clerical vows of celibacy, poverty, and obedience, Luther insisted that the seemingly secular estates that God had ordained for human life are precisely the places where Christians are to live out their faith.
Luther taught this on the basis of Scripture. “Only let each person lead the life that the Lord has assigned to him, and to which God has called him” (1 Cor. 7:17). According to this verse, God assigns us to a certain “life” and calls us to that life. The Apostle Paul teaches that Christ is hidden in marriage, gives instructions to parents and their children, and says that servants should work as if they were serving God instead of their masters, who are reminded that they too are servants of God (Eph. 5:22–6:9). The Apostle also teaches that God works through earthly rulers to punish wrongdoers and to bless those who do good by making a peaceful society possible (Rom. 13:1–7; cf. 1 Peter 2:13–14). The Ten Commandments themselves are vocational, as Luther emphasizes in the Small Catechism, teaching our duties to God, but also to our parents, to our spouse, to our fellow members of society (by not killing them), to the economic order (by not stealing or coveting other’s possessions), and to the law courts (by not bearing false witness).
The commandments of Scripture, as Jesus tells us, can be summarized by the injunction to love God “with all your heart and with all your soul and with all your mind” and to “love your neighbor as yourself ” (Matt. 22:34–40). Loving God is not something we can do in our sinful natures; rather, it is a function of God’s love for us and His gift of Jesus Christ for our salvation. The Apostle John makes this explicit: “In this is love, not that we have loved God but that he lovedus and sent his Son to be the propitiation for our sins” (John 4:10, emphasis added). Thus, our relationship with God and our love for Him do not depend in any way upon our own initiatives or good works, but only on Christ, to whom we are united by faith. “We love because he first loved us” (John 4:19). And this love for God, which is our response to the gospel of our salvation, carries over into love for our neighbors. “Beloved, if God so loved us, we also ought to love one another” (John 4:11). “God does not need our good works,” Gustaf Wingren observes in 9 Our good summarizing Luther in his Advent sermon, “but our neighbor does.” works are not to be spiritual exercises that we are supposedly doing for God to acquire merit before Him. Rather, what God, having reconciled us to Himself, requires is for us to love and serve our neighbors. And this is done precisely in vocation.
The problem of monasticism, according to Luther, is that while it emphasizes the saving power of good works, the works it requires—mortifications, rituals, devotional exercises—are not really “good” at all. “For 10 he asks. The good works that God requires are to be acts whom is it helpful?” of love and service to our neighbors. “If you find you have a work that you do for the benefit of God or of His saints or of yourself and not only for your neighbor,” Luther says, “know that such a work is not good.”
The monastery and the cloister, with their vows against the estates that God has established for human relationships, purposefully shut out the neighbor. Indeed, the monks and nuns who were considered the holiest were the hermits and anchoresses, those who lived absolutely alone, devoting themselves to God, but having no contact whatsoever with a neighbor. In contrast, God calls those who want to serve Him to do so by serving their neighbors. Thus, a Christian who is acting in vocation—a mother who is changing her baby’s diapers, a little boy who is doing his chores—is doing a holier work than that of all the man made asceticisms of the monasteries. In Luther’s colorful and comical language, “A miller’s maid, if she believes, does more good, accomplishes more, and I would trust her more if she only takes the sack from the donkey than all the priests and monks [do] if they sang themselves to death day and night and 12 In turn, each vocation has its particular tormented themselves until they bleed.” neighbors to love and serve:
A man is to live, speak, act, hear, suffer, and die for the love and service of his wife and child, the wife for the husband, the children for the parents, the servants for their masters, the masters for their servants, the government for its subjects, the subjects for their government, each one for his fellow man, even for his enemies, so that always one is the other’s hand, mouth, eye, foot, even heart and mind.
In marriage, the husband’s neighbor is his wife, and he is called to love and serve her. The wife’s neighbor is her husband, and she is called to love and serve him. Likewise with parents and children, rulers and citizens, pastors and the members of their congregation—they are all called to love and serve each other. In the workplace, employers (“masters”) and employees (“servants”) do good to each other, and together they love and serve their customers with the fruits of their labor.
Vocation and the Christian Life
Here is how Luther defines “a true and complete Christian life”: “Faith brings and gives Christ to you as your own with all His possessions. Love gives you to 14 Faith comes first, through the gospel, your neighbor with all your possessions.” whereupon faith bears fruit in works of love for the neighbor. This is “faith working through love” (Gal. 5:6). This sense of the Christian life as the interplay between faith and love is the theme of one of Luther’s greatest works, On theFreedom of the Christian. “A Christian lives not in himself, but in Christ and in his neighbor,” Luther writes. “He lives in Christ through faith, in his neighbor through love. By faith he is caught up beyond himself into God. By love he descends beneath himself into his neighbor.”
Just as our neighbor is in need and lacks that in which we abound, so we were in need before God and lacked his mercy. Hence, as our heavenly Father has in Christ freely come to our aid, we also ought freely to help our neighbor through our body and its works, and each one should become as it were a Christ to the other that we may be Christs to one another and Christ may be the same in all, that is, that we may be truly Christians.
Christ is in vocation, and when we love and serve our neighbor, He Himself is working through us to bless the person in need. Likewise, Christ is hidden in our neighbor (Matt. 25:31–46), so that when we love and serve “the least of these,” we are loving and serving Him. Being “Christs to one another” means more than simply being benevolent. Christ sacrificed Himself for us. And so we must sacrifice ourselves for others.
Jesus said, “If anyone would come after me, let him deny himself and take up his cross daily and follow me” (Luke 9:23). Bearing the cross means more than suffering; it means suffering for someone. The cross is the instrument of sacrifice. Taking up our cross does not here refer to martyrdom; rather, we are to take up our cross “daily,” in the course of our everyday vocations. The sacrifice called for here is of the self. When we love and serve our neighbor, at some level, we deny ourselves—what we want, what we would rather do—for the sake of the neighbor. The father who works at his job until he is physically exhausted to make ends meet for his family, or who drives his children to soccer practice when he would much rather be doing something else, is presenting his body as a “living sacrifice” for his family (Rom. 12:1). These sacrifices are often very small and are often a joy to offer. But whereas the world today sees marriage, parenthood, and work in terms of self-fulfillment, the Bible describes them all in terms of self-denial.
When the Apostle Paul talks about marriage as having to do with Christ and the church, he is not just talking about patterns of authority but also patterns of sacrifice. Wives are to submit to their husbands, a sacrifice of herself for him; husbands are to “love [their] wives, as Christ loved the church and gave himself up for her” (Eph. 5:25). The husband is in the role of Christ, not to lord it over his wife but to emulate His sacrifice for the church by giving Himself up for His bride. In fact, the Bible describes all authority that vocation may bring in terms of service and sacrifice:
And Jesus called them to him and said to them, “You know that those who are considered rulers of the Gentiles lord it over them, and their great ones exercise authority over them. But it shall not be so among you. But whoever would be great among you must be your servant, and whoever would be first among you must be slave of all. For even the Son of Man came not to be served but to serve, and to give his life as a ransom for many.” (Mark 10:42–45)
Many Christian books on marriage focus on the question, “Who has to obey whom?” even as they try to solve marital problems in terms of the world’s ideal of self-fulfillment. But a biblical and vocational approach to marriage offers a completely different paradigm, bringing the gospel into the relationship and showing quarreling couples how to live out their faith in love for each other. 17 Though Luther writes extensively about bearing the cross in vocation. people today evaluate their marriages, jobs, and other vocations according to how “successful” they are—to the point of abandoning those vocations when they bring pain instead of pleasure—Luther acknowledges the trials and sufferings that these vocations can bring. These drive us to prayer and to greater dependence on Christ, who takes our cross into His cross, which causes us to 18 Christ also turns our crosses into acts of sacrifice for the grow in our faith. neighbor.
For Luther, the doctrine of vocation has to do with the priesthood of all believers. That does not mean that all believers get to be pastors. A priest is someone who offers a sacrifice. In our relationship to God, Christ is our only priest, and His sacrifice for our sins was once and for all (Heb. 7). Roman Catholicism taught that Christ’s sacrifice is reenacted in the Mass. This is why ministers in the Roman Catholic Church are called “priests,” a term Protestants avoid for their ministers. And yet, all Christians are called to take up their crosses and to present their “bodies as a living sacrifice” (Rom. 12:1). The Apostle Peter begins his own discussion of vocation by teaching that we are to be “a holy priesthood, to offer spiritual sacrifices acceptable to God through Jesus Christ” (1 Peter 2:5), going on in that chapter and the next to talk about submission to authority, masters and servants, husbands and wives. Thus, Luther connected the priesthood of all believers to the sacrifices of vocation. “The Christian brings his sacrifice as he renders the obedience, offers the service, and proves the love which his work and calling require of him,” Vilmos Vatja writes, summarizing Luther. “The work of the Christian in his calling becomes a function of his priesthood, his bodily sacrifice. His work in the calling is a work of faith, the worship of the kingdom of the world.”
To be sure, we often sin in our vocations. We want to be served rather than to serve, using our callings for our own self-aggrandizement instead of for the 20 We sometimes sin against our vocations. Some doctors good of our neighbor. use their God-given medical skills to abort or euthanize their patients rather than caring for them. Some husbands are cruel to their wives instead of loving and serving them. Some pastors teach their flock falsehoods rather than the Word of God.
Luther wrote his Small Catechism so that it would help Christians scrutinize their vocations. It includes a “Table of Duties,” which consists of “certain passages of Scripture for various holy orders and estates whereby these are 21 These “holy orders” are severally to be admonished as to their office and duty. not those of monasticism but of pastors and their hearers, rulers and subjects, husbands and wives, employers and workers, all arranged in dyads of neighbors, giving the Bible passages that pertain to their offices. In the section of the catechism on “Confession,” the question asks, “What sins should we confess?”
Here consider your station according to the Ten Commandments, whether you are a father, mother, son, daughter, master, mistress, servant; whether you have been disobedient, unfaithful, slothful; whether you have grieved any person by word or deed; whether you have stolen, neglected, or wasted aught, or done other injury.
With this self-examination, applying the Ten Commandments to one’s vocation, the Christian is then enjoined to repent and to confess those sins before God and also the pastor—whether individually or in corporate worship—and then to receive Christ’s forgiveness, which He conveys by means of the pastor as he proclaims the gospel.
Thus, for Luther, the spiritual life is not to be carried out alone in a hermitage, nor in constant “church work” seven days a week. The spiritual life of faith working in love is played out in our marriages, in what we do with our children, in the workplace, in the culture, and in the communities where God has placed us. To be sure, vocation is where evangelism happens naturally, as parents raise their children in the Lord and workers share their faith with their colleagues. But it is not necessary to always spiritualize what we do by using it as a pretext for churchly activities. The vocation itself—on the factory floor or the office cubicle, in the home, or the community—has value in God’s sight. It is the place of love and service, sin and forgiveness, faith and sanctification. “In all our religious and ethical life,” the Swedish theologian Einar Billing said, “we are given to an incredible overestimation of the extraordinary at the 23 Vocation brings the Christian life into the ordinary, expense of the ordinary.” real world of our everyday lives. Luther wrote: If you are a manual laborer, you find that the Bible has been put into your workshop, into your hand, into your heart. It teaches and preaches how you should treat your neighbor. Just look at your tools—at your needle or thimble, your beer barrel, your goods, your scales or yardstick or measure—and you will read this statement inscribed on them.
Everywhere you look, it stares at you. Nothing that you handle every day is so tiny that it does not continually tell you this, if you will only listen.
Conclusion
What happened to the doctrine of vocation? “Calvin’s view of vocation largely stands in continuity with Luther’s view,” Brandon Jones says, though the later 25 When vocation is addressed in the Reformer made some new applications.
Institutes, Calvin sounds very much like Luther:
Therefore each individual has his own kind of living assigned to him by the Lord as a sort of sentry post…. The Lord’s calling is in everything the beginning and foundation of well-doing…. No task will be so sordid and base, provided you obey your calling in it, that it will not shine and be reckoned very precious in God’s sight.
Luther discouraged people from leaving their callings, whereas Calvin encouraged them to be open to new callings from God. But when Luther exhorts Christians to remain where they are, it is nearly always in the context of assuring them that they do not have to enter a monastery to live the highest Christian 27 Luther was writing in the context of the late-medieval social order and its life. feudal economy, in which peasants remained peasants and sons followed the trade of their fathers. But very soon, thanks in part to the doctrine of vocation as well as the Reformation schools, social mobility exploded. Luther stressed the offices of the vocations rather than the individuals who held them. Calvin encouraged Christians to consider their personal gifts, talents, and inclinations in finding a calling. Calvin applied vocation to the burgeoning middle class and to the tradesmen, merchants, and manufacturers of the emerging modern 28 This was fully realized in the writings and actions of the Puritans economy. and their heirs.
But eventually, in all of this, vocation became narrowed in its meaning. The word that once referred to all of God’s estates and to His calling Christians to service in all of the dimensions of their lives became just another synonym for job. Luther probably used the term in reference to the family callings (marriage, parenthood, childhood) more than he did to the workplace. So does Scripture, with the key text 1 Corinthians 7:17—“Let each person lead the life that the Lord has assigned to him, and to which God has called him”—referring specifically to marriage.
But today, not only the workplace but the family and the culture have been drained of their spiritual significance. Medieval attitudes about what constitutes good works, the compartmentalization of life, and church work as more spiritually significant than “secular” concerns have reasserted themselves even among evangelical Christians. Meanwhile, today’s secularists are finding that family, work, and the society have been drained of meaning. The consequences are a shallow worldliness, futile attempts to remake God-ordained institutions on human terms, and temporary exhilaration crashing down into despair. The doctrine of vocation has never been more relevant or more urgent.
Notes
Notes
1. The definitive treatment of Luther’s theology of vocation is Wingren, Luther on Vocation. For contemporary applications, see my book God at Work: Your Christian Vocation in All of Life(Wheaton, Ill.: Crossway, 2002). Also my book written with my daughter Mary Moerbe, FamilyVocation: God’s Calling in Marriage, Parenting, and Childhood(Wheaton, Ill.: Crossway, 2012).
2. “Commentary on Psalm 147,” in LW, Vol. 14: Selected Psalms III, ed. Jaroslav Pelikan (St. Louis: Concordia, 1958), 114.
3. “Confession Concerning Christ’s Supper” (1528) in LW, Vol. 37: Word and Sacrament III, ed. Robert H. Fischer (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1961), 364.
4. Ibid.
5. Ibid.
6. The Catholic Encyclopedia Online, “Political Economy,” by F. O’Hara, accessed May 20, 2015, http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/12213b.html.
7. “Confession Concerning Christ’s Supper,” in LW, 37:365.
8. Ibid.
9. Wingren, Luther on Vocation, 10. See “Gospel for the First Sunday in Advent,”LW, Vol. 75:Church Postils I, eds. Benjamin T.G. Mayes and James T. Langebartels (St. Louis: Concordia, 2013), 41–44. A postil is a sermon written to be read in all of the churches in a jurisdiction. Luther’s postils were a means of teaching the evangelical congregations as a whole and so had a broad influence.
10. Ibid., 75:43.
11. Ibid., 75:44.
12. Ibid., 75:44. See also “The Estate of Marriage,” in LW, Vol. 45: Christian in Society II, ed. Walther I. Brandt (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1962), and the explanation of the fourth commandment in Luther’s Large Catechism.
13. Ibid.
14. Ibid., 75:42.
15. “The Freedom of the Christian,” in LW, 31:371.
16. Ibid., 31:367–68.
17. Wingren, Luther on Vocation, 50–63.
18. Ibid. , 184–99.
19. Vilmos Vatja, Luther on Worship(Philadelphia: Muhlenberg, 1958), 169.
20. Wingren, Luther on Vocation, 6.
21. Luther’s Small Catechism(St. Louis: Concordia, 1943), 25.
22. Ibid., 19.
23. Einar Billing, Our Calling(Philadelphia: Fortress, 1964), 29.
24. LW, Vol. 21: The Sermon on the Mount and the Magnificat, ed. Jaroslav Pelikan (St. Louis: Concordia, 2007), 237.
25. Brandon C. Jones, “Reforming Luther on Vocation: A reassessment of Martin Luther’s theology of vocation in light of Gilbert Meilaender’s works” (lecture, ETS Annual Meeting, 2009), 7, http://www.academia.edu/205930/Reforming_Luther_on_Vocation.
26. Calvin, Institutes, 3.10.6. The early editions ended with a section “On the Christian Life,” culminating in this passage (at 2.7.24–25). Thus, vocation was, in effect, the last word in the Institutes. In the fifth and sixth editions, the work was reorg http://wwwanized, so that this material appears in book 3. But it was also published separately in an extremely popular handbook titled Golden Bookletof the True Christian Life.
27. See, for example, LW, 3:62. Brandon Jones makes this same point.
28. For these differences between Luther and Calvin on vocation, see Max Stackhouse, “Vocation,” in The Oxford Handbook of Theological Ethics, eds. Gilbert Meilaender and William Werpehowski (Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, 2005), 198–99.