5. Substantial Concepts in Calvin's Commentary on Calvin's analysis of Galatians appears very compact in comparison to Luther's commentary, where there is ample material for an analysis of his theology.
Nevertheless, Calvin addresses the substantial themes of his Galatians in sufficient detail for an examination.
Similar to the approach taken with Luther's Galatians, there is no single overarching viewpoint under which we could present Calvin's theology in his
Galatians. That is why the various substantial concepts of Calvin's Galatians have been treated each in turn, as in the previous section.
As there are only three publications found in the literature search which deal specifically with Calvin's Galatians,823 each of them is briefly introduced (differing from the consideration of only the most relevant works preceding that of Luther's commentary). The four publications which compare some aspects of Luther's and Calvin's Galatians are not again reviewed here as they were briefly outlined in the introduction (section 1.1.).
Introduction to Chapter 5 – Previous Research on Calvin's Galatians Peter and Gilmont's Bibliotheca Calviniana: Les oevres de Jean Calvin publiées au
XVIe siècle: I. Écrits théologiques, littéraires et juridiques 1532-1554, in addition to giving precise information on extant manuscripts of Calvin's commentary, includes a delineation of about a page of the history of the writing of Calvin's
Galatians. Thus their study has been helpful for the section of this study (2.1) dealing with the historical background of Calvin's commentary.824 Understandably, their work does not deal with the theological content of the commentary.
Faber's article 'The Influence of Erasmus' Annotationes on Calvin's Galatians Commentary' examines issues relating to exegesis and translation focusing primarily on the question of the extent to which Calvin follows
Erasmus' translations of the Greek to Latin in his commentary. Faber's article was helpful for the introductory sections of this paper dealing with translation (2.2.1)
823See Peter and Gilmont 1991. Additionally, Louis Goumaz' two books, La Doctrine du Salut d'Après les Commentaires de Jean Calvin sur le Nouveau Testament (1917) and Timothée ou le Ministèe
Évangélique d'après Calvin et ses Commentaires sur le Nouveau Testament (1948) occasionally refer to Calvin's Galatians as they discuss Calvin's concept of salvation (Goumaz 1917) and ministry (Goumaz
1948) in his commentaries on the New Testament. However, there is no specific treatment of these concepts in Calvin's Galatians in particular. Some other works may occasionally refer to Calvin's
Galatians as well, but not as the main focus. See e.g. Holder 2006: 230, 256, where Holder, in his analysis on Calvin as a commentator of Paul, makes a passing reference to the time of the writing of Calvin's commentaries on Galatians, Ephesians, Philippians and Colossians.
824See also footnote 58 under section 2.1. for a discussion on the date of the composition of Galatians where Peter and Gilmont's work is also discussed briefly. and Calvin's references to Erasmus in his Galatians (2.4.3.3). However, as Faber's focus is not the theology of Calvin's Galatians, it is not examined any further in this context.825
Feld's Einleitung to vol. 16 of Ioannis Calvini Opera Exegetica includes a helpful introduction not only to the sources Calvin used, and the hermeneutic of his commentary, but also to the theology of his Galatians. The principal limitation of Feld's introduction for the purposes of this study is the fact that Feld's comment does not discuss Calvin's Galatians specifically but relates generally to the group of his commentaries on Galatians, Ephesians, Filippians and Colossians.826 Bearing this in mind, some aspects of Feld's introduction relating to the theology of Calvin's Galatians are outlined.
Due to constraints of space, only Feld's choice of substantial concepts, not their content, is discussed here. Feld notes in his introduction that his purpose is to introduce some representative aspects of the theology of the four commentaries of Calvin, which makes his choice of concepts interesting in comparison to this study.827 Feld's treatment includes a consideration of righteousness by faith,828 election, Calvin's theology of the cross and suffering
(Passionsund Kreuzestheologie Calvins) and ecclesiology. Feld's treatment on righteousness by faith includes aspects of several themes relating to faith, the notion of merit, the relationship between the Old and New Testaments, the first use of the law (usus elenchticus legis) and human depravity. Feld's discussion on Calvin's method and hermeneutic also includes an additional consideration of biblical interpretation, and interestingly, ministry.829 Out of these themes, the ones on righteousness by faith, ecclesiology, ministry and interpretation of Scripture, are referenced by Feld specifically to Calvin's Galatians in a significant way.830 It is
826Originally, Calvin's commentaries on Galatians, Ephesians, Philippians and Colossians were published as one commentary in 1548.
827Having stated that Calvin highlights many of his foundational theological ideas in these commentaries, Feld states, 'Einige davon sollen im folgenden kurz skizziert werden.' See Feld 1992: xxxii. Thus he does not necessarily attempt to identify all of the substantial concepts of the commentaries, but instead, points to some examples of the substantial concepts.
828Feld refers to the subject he discusses (referenced to Calvin's discussion on Galatians 3) as 'faith, righteousness by faith and the relationship between faith and works'. He states, 'Mit seiner Auffassung des Glaubens, der Gerechtigkeit aus dem Glauben, des Verhältnisses von Glauben und Werken, wie er sie insbesondere im Zusammenhang der Erläuterung des dritten Kapitels des Galaterbriefes darlegt, steht
Calvin auf dem gemeinsamen Boden refrormatorischer Theologie.' See Feld 1992: xxxii.
829See Feld 1992: xxix-xxxii. This is connected to Calvin's hermeneutic in that his commentary is intended for ministers in their service of the Word. Feld states, 'Calvin bei der Abfassung seiner
Kommentare vor allem an die "Diener des Wortes", die Pastoren und Doktoren, gedacht hat' (Feld 1992: xxix).
830Feld identifies the themes of election and the theology of the cross and suffering (Passions – und Kreuzestheologie Calvins) primarily within Calvin's commentaries on Ephesians (election) and Philippians (theology of the cross and suffering), and to a lesser extent, within his commentary on Galatians. See Feld 1992: xxxv-xxxix. noteworthy that each of Feld's references to Galatians within his discussion on ecclesiology relates to the relationship between the Old and New Testaments.
Comparing Feld's choice of substantial concepts to those highlighted by this study, it becomes evident that those of justification and ministry, and to some extent, the law and the relationship between the Old and New
Testaments correspond to the themes identified by Feld. On the other hand, those of the work of the Holy Spirit (especially with regards to the struggle between the Spirit and the flesh) and the notion of good works, which according to this study are themes of significance within Calvin's Galatians, are not singled out in Feld's introduction, probably partly due to the fact that Feld's brief treatment does not address Calvin's Galatians specifically.
As Peter and Gilmonts' and Faber's works do not address Calvin's theology and Feld's examination does not focus specifically on Calvin's Galatians, it seems therefore especially important to analyse the substantial concepts of Calvin's commentary. As far as I am aware, the examination below, despite its limitations, represents the most comprehensive treatment to date on the specific theology of Calvin's Galatians.831 Some aspects of the theology of Calvin's Galatians have been discussed in Hesselink's article comparing his and Luther's commentaries, and to a more limited sense, in Parker's, Noordegraaf's and Engel's works,832 but other than these publications, the theology of Calvin's commentary on Galatians has not yet been studied in greater detail.
The themes presented below are in a roughly thematic order, while the significance of these concepts to Calvin's commentary is also taken into account. Thus, the theme of Christian liberty is discussed before the theme of the law and gospel in distinction to Luther's Galatians where law and gospel was discussed first. Calvin's concept of ministry is discussed last, however, because this seems better thematically despite the fact that Calvin gives clearly more attention to it than to the subjects of the law, good works and the Holy Spirit.
831My search for works on Calvin's Galatians included D. Alfredus Erichson's (ed.) Bibliographia Calviniana: Catalogus chronologicus operum Calvini (lists all works dealing with Calvin from Calvin's lifetime to year 1900), Wilhelm Niesel's Calvin - Bibliographie 1901-1959 (1961), Pierre Fraenkel's
'Petit supplément aux bibliographies calviniennes 1901-1963' (1971), D. Kempf's, A Bibliography of Calviniana 1959-1974 (1975), and the subsequent yearly bibliographies available in the Calvin
Theological Journal, up to and including year 2006.
832Parker's work is limited due to the fact that he focuses on Calvin's method of interpretation rather than theology, while Hesselink's and especially Noordegraaf's analyses of Calvin's Galatians are limited due to their brevity. Engels' work is limited due to the fact that he treats all of Calvin's commentaries on Paul, not only his Galatians. See Parker 1963, Engels 1967, Hesselink 1984 and Noordegraaf 1989. See also the section on previous research in the introduction.
The concept of justification is clearly the most important theme in Calvin's Galatians. When discussing justification, Calvin most often treats it in contrast to the opposing notion of justification by works.833 Differing somewhat from Luther,
Calvin lays greater emphasis on the relationship between the Old and New Testaments. The role of Christ in justification and gospel and law are further notions treated by Calvin.
Again, it needs to be borne in mind that the division into themes below is at times somewhat arbitrary. Just as in Luther's Galatians, the theme of gospel and law, for instance, could have covered much of the material treated elsewhere. However, the limit was here drawn on those occasions where Calvin, in one way or another, draws a contrast between the law and the gospel.834
5.1.1. Justification by Faith, not Works In preparation for the writing of this section, it seemed that it might be easiest to discuss Calvin's concept of justification by faith by focusing on his view of the Reformation 'solas', solus Christus, sola gratia, sola fide, solus Deus, solum promissum Deum835 in a somewhat similar way to that of H. Robert Santmire in his article on Calvin's concept of justification in his commentary on Romans.836
However, it appears that this would not do full justice to Calvin's treatment of the subject in his Galatians and would end up neglecting certain important aspects of his exposition. Thus, after remarks on the concept of justification by faith, not works, the notion of human righteousness in contrast to Christ's righteousness is examined, followed by a brief analysis of Calvin's delineation of the notion of faith in Gal. 3.6-11.
In the first part of his commentary (Argumentum epistolae), Calvin names justification a fundamental article, since it deals with the method of obtaining salvation, the most important of all matters.837 Already in this connection, Calvin
833Calvin sees that Paul is 'continually employed in contrasting' (perpetua opponit) the righteousness of the law and God's free acceptance. Calvin states, 'Deinde iustitia Legis gratuitam accptionem, qua nos dignatur Deus, perpetuo opponit.' COR 16.49, on Gal. 2.15.
834For instance, the theme of the gospel and law in Calvin's Galatians has been discussed in some detail by Hesselink. He includes much of the subject matter treated here under the heading of justification into his discussion of gospel and law. See Hesselink 1984: 71-79.
835All the above named 'solas' can be identified, for instance, in the passage in COR 16.63-71, on Gal.
836See Santmire 2004: 298-304.
837At Paulus tanquam de primario Christianae fidei capite dimicat. Neque immerito. Non enim leve malum est suffocari Euangelii claritatem, laqueum iniici conscientiis, tolli discrimen Veteris et Novi testamenti. Videbat praeterea his erroribus coniunctam quoque esse impiam et perniciosam opinionem promerendae iustitiae. Haec causa est, cur tanta vehementia et contentione depugnet. Nos quoque admoniti, quam gravis et seria disputatio hic tractetur. COR 16.6, Argumentum. notes that justification takes place by grace, not works.838 In contradistinction to Santmire's accentuation of predestination in Calvin's view of justification in his commentary on Romans,839 there does not seem to be any general emphasis on God's predestination and election in Calvin's presentation of justification in his
Galatians. This is despite the fact Calvin occasionally, though not frequently, alludes to the theme.840
Calvin does not accept any kind of notion of what he terms 'halfjustification' (dimidia iustitia) ascribed to papists.841 Justification takes place either by faith or by the law. The way Paul explains justification is exclusive and since justification is by faith, it cannot be through the law. Calvin affirms,
'Let it therefore remain settled that this proposition is exclusive, that we are justified in no other way than by faith, or, nothing but faith justifies, or, which comes to the same thing, that we are justified but by faith alone.'842
Another aspect of Calvin's argumentation deals with an objection which questioned whether the issue of ceremonies in Galatians had anything to do with justification. Calvin affirms, both in the Argument for the epistle and in his exposition of Gal. 2.15, that it was necessary for Paul to discuss the general principle (generali principio)843 before dealing with the particular error (particularis error) relating to ceremonies. In fact, it is this general principle, justification by God's grace, not works, which is the more important one for Paul.844
Deinde Paulum non tam sollicitum fuisse de caeremoniis quam de impia opinione acquirendae ex operibus salutis. Notemus ergo Paulum non inepte ab ovo (quod aiunt) ordiri, sed necessario fontem ipsum indicare, ut sciant lectores non hic de umbra asini litigari, sed de re omnium maxima, qua ratione salutem obtineamus. COR 16.9, Argumentum.
838Gratuito nos iustificari coram Deo, non operibus legis… Primo non potuisse aliter expediri quaestionem quam sumpto generali principio: Iustificari nos mera Dei gratia. Quod non caeremonias modo, sed alia etiam opera excludit. COR 16.8-9, Argumentum
839See Santmire 2004: 295-296, 298.
840See section 5.6.2. for further discussion.
841Sed Paulo scilicet theologia Papistarum ignota erat. Fide hominem iustificari dictitant, partem iustitiae locant in operibus. Talem dimidiam iustitiam nesciebat Paulus. COR 16.51, on Gal. 2.16.
842Maneat igitur illud constitutum hic propositionem esse exclusivam: Nos non aliter iustificare quam per fidem, aut: Non nisi fide iustificare, cui ista aequipollet: Nos sola fide iustificari. COR 16.51, on Gal.
2.16. In this instance, Parker, in his English translation of the passage, probably by mistake, omits the translation of the phrase, 'non nisi fide iustificare'. This has been included in the translation above, however. See Torrance and Torrance (eds), Parker (trans) 1965: 39.
843Calvin uses the terms 'generali principio', 'universali principio' and the phrase 'ab ovo (quod aiunt) ordiri' ( - starts from the egg, as they say). See COR 16.8-9, Argumentum.
844Primo non potuisse aliter expediri quaestionem quam sumpto generali principio: Iustificari nos mera Dei gratia. Quod non caeremonias modo, sed alia etiam opera excludit. Deinde Paulum non tam sollicitum fuisse de caeremoniis quam de impia opinione acquirendae ex operibus legis. COR 16.8-9,
5.1.1.1. Christ's Righteousness vs. Human Righteousness Calvin presents the contrast between Christ's righteousness and human righteousness in a different way from Luther, although both emerge as being in large degree of agreement on the content of the concepts. Calvin affirms that there are only two (theoretically) possible ways to justification, by one's own righteousness, achieved by works of the law or by Christ's righteousness.845
However, it is not possible for humans to obey the law perfectly,846 and fulfil its requirements because of human depravity.847 Therefore, the only correct way to find justification lays in taking hold of the righteousness of another, that is, of Christ's righteousness.848 Calvin further elucidates the contrast between human righteousness and Christ's righteousness in his comments on Gal. 3.17-18, affirming the presence of the two possible ways to justification, a) by law and works or b) by God's free promise and faith. Since it is established in Paul's words that God's free promise is accepted by faith, Calvin argues, therefore the opposite conclusion of including human works in justification is proven impossible.849
Correspondingly, true believers in Christ are characterised by the fact that they recognize themselves as being sinners and renounce righteousness by works.850
845See e.g. COR 16.47-48, on Gal. 2.15, COR 16.57-58, on Gal. 2.21, COR 16.68-69, on Gal. 3.10-11 and COR 16.74-76, on Gal. 3.17-18. Hubert Goudineau, commenting on Calvin's view of justification in his commentary on Romans, also identifies the importance of the contrast between righteousness by faith and righteousness by works for Calvin's discussion, 'En tant que "système" de justification, elle se trouve à l'opposé de la justification par les oeuvres' (Goudineau 1996: 43)
846For further discussion on the human impossibility of fulfilling the law from around the time of the composition of Calvin's Galatians, see Calvin's Acta Synodi Tridentinae Cum Antidoto (1547) on this issue. CO 7.459-463.
847Calvin further argues that if humans could achieve justification by their works, Christ would have died in vain. Similarly, because there is redemption, satisfaction, atonement and cleansing in Christ, humans are guilty and thus in need of justification in Christ. Si promeremur ipsi iustitiam, ergo frustra Christus passus est. Nam ideo passus est, ut eam nobis acquireret. Quid opus fuit aliunde nobis comparari, quod dare ipsi nobis possumus? Certe si mors Christi redemptio nostra est, ergo captivi eramus; si satisfactio, ergo eramus debitores; si expiatio, rei ergo eramus; si ablatio, eramus immundi. See COR 16.57; on Gal.
2.21. Calvin further explains the role of faith and the Spirit in justification by specifying that righteousness depends on faith, and is obtained through the Spirit. See COR 16.118, on Gal. 5.5.
848Sed Paulus extra controversiam hic ponit, quod Papistae hodie pro execrabili dogmate habent: homines viribus destitui ad servandam Legem. Ita audacter concludit maledictos esse omnes, quia sit omnibus praeceptum Legem in solidum servare; nempe quia in hac naturae corruptione deficit eos facultas. …
Haec simul non possunt convenire: iustificari proprio merito et aliena gratia. Ideo alterum evertitur ab altero. COR 16.68-69, on Gal. 3.10, 3.11. See also COR 16.47-48, on Gal. 2.15.
849COR 16.74-76, on Gal. 3.17-18.
850Calvin sees the fact that true believers confess their sinfulness and renounce legal righteousness as a focal point in the controversy at issue in Galatians. Quemadmodum enim propriam operum iustitiam volentes stabilire 'iustitiae Dei non sunt subiecti', ita econverso qui in Christum credunt, peccatores se esse confitentur et operum iustitiae renuntiant. Hic iam versatur in praecipua quaestione, imo in hac una propositione tota fere controversiae summa inclusa est. COR 16.48, on Gal. 2.15.
5.1.1.2. Role of Faith in Justification Goudineau's brief summary of Calvin's view of faith in his commentary on Romans, of Christ as the 'material' (la matière) of justification and faith as the 'means' (l'instrument) of justification is reflected also in Calvin's rather detailed explanation of the notion of faith in his Galatians.851 Commenting on Gal. 3.6,
Calvin explains the meaning of the concepts of 1) faith, 2) righteousness and 3) the question of why faith is given the honour of being called the cause (causa) of justification.852 First, faith, according to Calvin, is not any conviction regarding the truth of God. Thus even though Cain may have believed the truth of God's chastisement on him, this was not true faith. True faith relates to God's Word in such a way that it 'rests and trusts' (acquiescere) in God and his promise. This is exemplified by Abraham who was sure regarding God's promise of His fatherly favour.853
Second, righteousness is received through the imputation of Christ's righteousness in that God accounts the faith of the Christian as righteousness. This, however, is not because faith is inherently worthy of God's
851Goudineau states, 'Il met, pour cela, en évidence le rapport existent entre le Christ et la foi: le Christ est la matière de notre justice, tandis que la foi est l'instrument pour recevoir le Christ' (Goudineau
1996: 43). Santmire and Goumaz both refer to Calvin's use of the Aristotelian four causes, causa formalis, efficiens, materialis, finalis in their descriptions of Calvin's concept of justification (Santmire) and salvation (Goumaz). Goumaz uses Calvin's view on these four causes as a key to explain his concept of salvation. Compare Santmire 2004: 298-304 with Goumaz 1917: 129-276. For further information on the use of Aristotles' four causes in the history of theology, and how they have been used also by Luther, see also Braw 2007: 156-157 (127, 214). While it is true that Calvin uses the four Aristotelian causes in his explanation of justification in the Institutio and one may legitimately utilise them in an attempt to describe Calvin's total concept, it needs to be borne in mind that in Calvin's own extended discussion, the four causes (causa) of justification only constitute a fraction of his treatment of the theme. Calvin explains the four causes as follows, for instance, 'C'est, que l'origine et effect de nostre salut gist en la dilection du Pere celeste: la matiere et substance, en l'obeyssance de Christ, l'instrument, en l'illumination du Sainct Esprit, c'est à dire en la Foy que la fin est à ce que la bonté de Dieu soit glorifiée.' InstFa 390. Compare Calvin's compact statements on the four causes of justification in different versions of his Institutio in Institution de la Religion Chrestienne 1541 (InstFa, pp. 387-388,
390), Institutio 1539-54 (CO 1.10.44 and CO 1.10.48) and Institutio 1559 (CO 2.3.14.17 and CO 2.3.14.21) with the lengthy and comprehensive discussion in the chapter on justification in the same versions of Institutio in Institution de la Religion Chrestienne 1541 (InstFa 354-432), Institutio 1539-54
(CO 1.10.1-1.10.87) and Institutio 1559 (CO 2.3.11.1-CO 2.3.18.10). It is noteworthy that in his Galatians Calvin gives some attention to faith as the instrumental cause of justification (causa instrumentalis) as compared to the principal cause of justification (causa principalis). For further discussion and for the reference, see section 5.1.1.2. and COR 16.64, on Gal. 3.6.
852In his comment on the phrase 'iustus ex fide vivet' (Gal. 3.11), Calvin refers backward to Romans, where the issue has been more fully expounded. COR 16.69, on Gal. 3.11. See for more detail in CO
49.20-22, on Rom. 1.17 and CO 49.60-86, on Rom. 3.23-4.23.
853Fides non pro quavis persuasione capitur, quam habere possent homines de veritate Dei. Nam ut centies fidem habuisset Cain Deo poenam sibi denuntianti, nihil hoc ad consequendam iustitiam.
Credendo ideo iustificatus est Abraham, quia quum promissionem a Deo haberet paterni favoris, eam certo amplexus sit. Ergo fides hic relationem habet ac respectum ad tale verbum Dei, quo freti homines acquiescere in ipso possint. COR 16.64, on Gal. 3.6. acceptance or that some kind of special habit or quality is infused into the human agent in justification, but because God freely accepts the human who believes.854 In accordance with the concepts iustitia aliena and extra nos, Calvin exhorts the believers to remember that they are righteous outside of themselves, in Christ.855
Third, Calvin further asks why faith is called the cause of justification because strictly speaking, it is only the instrumental cause (causa instrumentalis) of justification and not the principal cause (causa principalis) of righteousness, which is God's free acceptance.856 Answering his own question,
Calvin replies that faith is the way in which the believer attains to true righteousness. This also provides the answer why faith is called the cause of righteousness – faith looks to God's mercy and embraces Christ with all his benefits.857 Faith receives God's blessing, trusts in God's mercy and his promise alone, and has no regard for one's own qualities, personal excellence or works.858
5.1.2. Christian Liberty Christian liberty is treated by Calvin with reference to the nature of liberty, and in relation to the use of Christian liberty. Following Calvin's emphasis, most of the 854COR 16.64, on Gal. 3.6. Calvin elucidates the definition of 'to be justified' (d'estre iustifiez) in his
Sermons on Galatians and affirms that 'to be justified' refers to being accounted or regarded as just before God. Calvin states, 'Quand il [Paul] parle d'estre iustifiez, notons que c'est autant comme d'estre reputez ou tenus pour iustes devant Dieu.' CO 50.420, Douzieme Sermon, Galatians 2.15-16. Calvin mirrors the same concept later in his Deux congrégations in 1563, where he rejects the view according to which justification would refer to an actual change in the believer. Instead, the believer is accepted by grace, and considered righteous. Il est certain que là, ce mot de Iustifier n'importe point que Dieu nous face iustes, mais c'est qu'il nous recoit à merci et, en nous pardonnant nos pechez, il nous tient et repute comme iustes, combien que nous ne le soyons pas. DC 13, (28). The references to Calvin's Deux congrégations (DC) indicate the page numbering in Rodolphe Peter's edition (1964) of the original. The original page numbering is indicated in parenthesis e.g. DC 13 (28).
855Meminerimus ergo, qui fide iusti sunt, eos extra se iustos esse, nempe in Christo. COR 16.65, on Gal.
3.6. The same concept of justification outside of the person of the believer (hors de nos personnes), is reiterated by Calvin in his Deux congrégations Brief que Dieu nous iustifie hors de nos personnes, en la satisfaction qu'il trouve au sacrifice de sa mort et passion. DC 14 (30).
856Cur autem fidei tribuitur tantus honor, ut vocetur causa iustitiae nostrae? Primo sciendum est esse causam instrumentalem duntaxat. Nam proprie loquendo iustitia nostra nihil aliud est quam gratuita Dei acceptio, in qua fundata est nostra salus. COR 16.64, on Gal. 3.6. Later in the discussion Calvin refers also to causa principalis of justification, which in the context is shown to be God's grace or God's gift
(Dei donum), just like proprie loquendo of justification is God's grace, not faith (faith being causa instrumentalis), in the sentence quoted above. See COR 16.64, on Gal. 3.6.
857COR 16.64, on Gal. 3.6. Niesel highlights the same thought, 'Faith [for Calvin] in itself has no value, no meaning for salvation. It is nothing more than an empty vessel. It acquires a saving significance only in relation to its content: Jesus Christ.' Niesel 1980: 124. Calvin further notes that justification by faith is not only momentary but is preserved also amidst dangers that the Christian has to meet. Calvin states,
Quo significant non ad tempus eos modo sustentari, ut adveniente aliqua procella ruant, sed in perpetuum tempus stare, ut ne in media quidem morte desinant vivere. COR 16.69, on Gal. 3.11. One may possibly see a reference here to the concept of the perseverance of the faith of the righteous. The reference is not very clear in this respect, however.
858COR 16.66-67, on Gal. 3.7-8. discussion here deals with the nature of Christian liberty, while its appropriate use is also outlined.
Calvin affirms that Christian liberty is obtained by the blood of Christ, and received through faith.859 He further outlines two examples of Christian liberty from the time of Galatians. Commenting on Paul's refusal to circumcise
Titus, Calvin stresses that Paul would have been free to have Titus circumcised.
However, in this case there was an attempt to compel circumcision as a necessary observance, and therefore Paul, having regard for the higher matter involved, declined to circumcise Titus in defence of Christian liberty.860 Similarly, when Peter refused to eat with the Gentiles, Paul identified Peter's action as Judaizing and rebuked him publicly in order to defend Christian freedom.861 In line with Paul's example, Calvin declares that it is impossible to maintain one's connection with Christ unless it is recognized that Christians are free from the bondage of the law.862
Therefore, there is freedom in the Christian church regarding all outward matters.
The only thing that is required now, is simple faith (nunc fidem).863 When any observances are used, they ought neither be many nor be burdensome on believers.864
In addition to freedom from the bondage of the law, Christian liberty can be viewed at least from two further points of view, from the perspective of redemption and from the perspective of the two dispensations of the Old and New Testaments. Viewed from the first perspective, Christ redeemed humans by placing himself under the yoke of the law in their stead so that he could grant liberty to them.865 Thus believers are now free from subjection to the law.866 When the 859See COR 16.9, Argumentum and COR 16.86, on Gal. 3.26.
860Non erat periculum, ne libertate sua Paulus spoliatetur, etiam aliis se subiiciendo. Sed aliis nocuisset exemplum. Prudenter ergo consideravit, quid expediret. Ita videmus et quatenus vitanda sint scandala et quid simper in rebus mediis sit spectandum, nempe aedificatio. ... Nam quia volebant false fratres in servitutem adigere pios, non fuit illis mos gerendus. COR 16.34, on Gal. 2.5. See the larger context in COR 16.33-34, on Gal. 2.4-5.
861COR 16.44, on Gal. 2.11. Calvin reiterates the importance of Christian liberty, which Peter's action threatened, in his Deux congrégations. Il [S. Pierre] met sous le pied la liberté des Chrestiens, et a constraint mesmes les povres Payens de prendre le ioug de la Loy et les a voulu reduire en servitude. DC
862Nam Christum tenere aliter non poterant, quam si agnoscerent eius beneficio nos manumissos esse a servitute Legis. COR 16.17, on Gal. 1.6.
863On Gal. 5.6. See also COR 16.119, on Gal. 5.5.
864Fateor quidem liberas hodie nobis esse res omnes externas, sed ita, ut caeremoniarum multitudine Ecclesia nequaquam oneretur, nisi velimus Christianismus cum Iudaismo confundere. COR 16.92, on 865COR 16.93, on Gal. 4.4.
866Calvin adds that the freedom from subjection to the law does not imply that the law no longer needs to be obeyed. It is subjection to 'the law with its appendages' (Legis … suis appendicibus) that believers are free from. COR 16.93, on Gal. 4.4. Though one may see a reference to the freedom Christians have with regards to ceremonial observances here, it nevertheless appears in the context that it is Christian freedom understood in a wider sense that is in question, namely, that in relation to the issue of issue is looked at from the second perspective, on the other hand, the Christian church now enjoys liberty with regard to outward ceremonies in contrast to the time of the Old Testament when ceremonial observances were necessary and in accordance with the command of God.867
Calvin's discussion on Gal. 5.1-6 provides his fullest single exposition on the issue of Christian liberty. At the start of his discussion Calvin underlines the focal importance of Christian liberty to the doctrine of salvation.868
'For it is not a matter of whether you are to eat this or that food, whether you are to observe or neglect a particular day (as many foolishly think and some accuse us of) but of what is permitted before God, what is necessary for salvation and what it is wrong to omit. In short, the controversy relates to the state of conscience when it comes to the judgment seat of God.'869
Calvin further reminds his readers that Christian liberty as a freedom with regard to ceremonial observances is of minor importance when compared to the underlying greater issue, namely, the fact that through Christ's work on the cross the believer has freedom from God's judgment and liberty from 'the tyranny of sin, Satan and death' (tyrannide peccati, Satanae et mortis).870 It is because any imposed legal observances compromise salvation by Christ alone that it is so important to maintain the pure doctrine of Christian liberty. Calvin asserts that one ought rather die in defence of Christian liberty than to allow consciences to be burdened with legal observances, and thus insult Christ.871
Considering the appropriate use of Christian liberty, on the other hand, Calvin distinguishes Christian freedom seen as an internal quality from Christian freedom considered from the outside. Calvin explains that Christian liberty, in itself, is an internal freedom before God, located in the conscience of the Christian. The use of Christian liberty, by way of contrast, deals with the outside justification Christians are free from all law, because they believe in Christ. Compare COR 16.93, on Gal. 4.4 with COR 16.46-47, on Gal. 2.14-15.
867In Ecclesia Christiana non amplius est servitus, sed liberalis conditio filiorum. Qualiter autem servi fuerint Patres sub Lege, iam dictum est: quia scilicet libertas eorum nondum erat revelata, sed inclusa sub
Legis involucris et iugo. COR 16.96, on Gal. 4.7.
868Sed prudentes et exercitati norunt hoc in salutis doctrina unum esse ex praecibuis capitibus. COR 869Non enim hic agitur, hocne an illo cibo vescaris, celebresne hunc diem an praetereas (quemadmodum stulte existimant multi, nonnulli vero calumniantur), sed quidnam tibi coram Deo liceat, quid ad salutem sit necessarium, quid omittere sit nefas. Denique disceptatio est de conscientiae conditione, ubi ad tribunal Dei venitur. COR 16.115, on Gal. 5.1.
870COR 16.115, on Gal. 5.1.
871Namsi onus humeris nostris iniquum imponant homines, sustineri potest; conscientias si redigere velint in servitutem, fortiter et usque ad mortem resistendum. Spoliabitur enim inaestimabili beneficio, si licebit hominibus conscientias nostras ligare. COR 16.116, on Gal. 5.1. See the larger context in COR 16.115and with human affairs.872 Some outward observances ought to be maintained and are beneficial – sacraments, for instance, are maintained because they are aids to faith. On the other hand, Christian liberty ought not be understood as entailing freedom given to human flesh. The flesh is given no freedom, but is instead kept under the constraint of love.873
5.1.3. Relationship between the Old and New Testaments Engels has drawn attention to the importance of Calvin's concept of God's covenant and the significance of the relationship of the Old Testament to the New in Calvin's discussion in his commentaries on Pauline epistles.874 The relationship between the Old and New Testaments is important within Calvin's commentary on Galatians as well. Calvin's Galatians treats the theme several times, and discusses it in some depth in its exposition of Gal. 3.23 and 4.1.
Commenting on Gal. 3.23 Calvin compares faith in the time of the Old Testament to faith in the time of the New Testament. He states that while faith itself in both time periods was the same, the substance of faith was presented to the people of the Old Testament as in a mirror, while the people of the New Testament are in possession of the true substance of faith. Thus the patriarchs directed their faith to the absent Christ, while those of the New Testament have him as already present,875 which closely mirrors Niesel's position on Calvin's concept according to which 'the decisive point is the recognition that the Old Testament promises what the New Testament offers to us in Christ.'876
Calvin's exposition on Gal. 4.1 deals with the issue of freedom from the point of view of the Old and New Testaments. Calvin asserts that while the people of the Old Testament were free, they were not yet in full possession of this freedom, since they were still under the guardianship and tutorship of the law.
Nonetheless, they were in possession of the same inheritance and blessing as the people of the New Testament and their consciences were free despite the outward slavery under the law.877 Therefore, Calvin maintains, using a Trinitarian affirmation, that the believers of both dispensations had one Mediator, God their
Father, and the same Spirit. The substance of doctrine, therefore, is the same. The differences deal with less important issues such as ceremonial observances and the 872Nam libertas in conscientia est Deumque respicit. Usus autem est in rebus externis et negotium habet cum honimibus, non cum solo Deo. COR 16.125, on Gal. 5.13.
873COR 16.125-126, on Gal. 5.13. See also COR 16.117-118, on Gal. 5.3 and COR 16.119, on Gal. 5.6.
874Engels sees Calvin's view on God's covenant and his view on the relationship between the Old and New Testaments as central to Calvin's understanding of the law in his commentaries on the Pauline epistles. This is undoubtedly a correct observation and gives an essential background to understanding the law in the context of the larger view of Calvin on salvation history. See Engels 1967, vol. 1: 17-105.
875Nam quum illic caeremoniae Christum adumbrarent tanquam absentem, nobis hodie veluti coram repraesentatur. Sic pro speculo, quod illi [Patres] habebant, nos substantiam hodie habemus. COR 16.84, on Gal. 3.23. See the whole context in COR 16.83-84, on Gal. 3.23.
877COR 16.89-90, on Gal. 4.1. utilised form of church government.878 When it comes to the use of ceremonies, on the other hand, God is more lenient in the new dispensation.879
Additionally, Calvin maintains that for the people of the Old Testament, the ceremonies were genuinely efficacious means of grace, because they were appointed for that purpose by God at the time. Nevertheless, their true efficacy lies in Christ, to whom the ceremonies pointed. The outward ceremonies have now been replaced by the presence of the Holy Spirit – all that God requires now for obtaining righteousness, is simple faith (nunc fidem).880
5.1.4. Role of Christ in Justification The role of Christ in justification is handled here with respect to the theme of Christ alone and to the concept of union with Christ. This slightly differs from how the theme was handled in Luther, where the notion of union with Christ (i.e. faith formed by love vs. faith formed by Christ) was not treated under this heading, but under the heading of two kinds of righteousness. In Luther the theme was addressed in contrast to the opposing notion (faith formed by love vs. faith formed by Christ), whereas in Calvin it is treated more on its own.
Calvin affirms, commenting on Gal. 1.4, that the best remedy for purifying the mind is remembering our relationship to Christ. Calvin sees it as very important that Christ alone is atonement for sin.881 There was cooperation between the Father and the Son in the accomplishment of the plan of redemption - the Father
878Inde constituendum est eandem semper fuisse doctrinam et vera fidei unitate nobiscum fuisse coniunctos, unios etiam Mediatoris fiducia nobiscum fretos Deum patrem invocasse et eodem Spiritu fuisse gubernatos. His omnibus consentaneum est discrimen inter nos et veteres Patres non in substantia esse, sed in accidentibus. Nam quae praecipua sunt in testamento vel foedere, in iis convenimus.
Caeremoniae et totum illud regimen, in quibus differimus, sunt quasi accessiones. COR 16.90, on Gal.
879COR 16.91, on Gal. 4.1.
880Ideoque iustitiam in fide sitam esse, et hanc iustitiam obtineri in Spiritu absque caeremoniis. ... Quod autem iustitiam fide nobis constare dicit, id cum Patribut nobis commune est. Omnes enim fide placuerunt Deo, ut Scriptura testatur. Sed fides illorum caeremoniarum velo erat implicita. Ideo nos ab illis decernit per verbum Spiritus, quod externis umbris opponitur. Intelligit ergo nudam esse nunc fidem, quae ad consequendam iustitiam sufficiat et quae non caeremoniarum pompis ornetur, sed spirituali Dei cultu sit contenta. COR 16.118-119, on Gal. 5.5. See also COR 16.97, on Gal. 4.9. In another sense, the Old Testament ceremonies have been replaced by sacraments in the New Testament. Thus, for instance, circumcision is succeeded by baptism in the New Testament. However, in both time periods the outward ceremonies (Old Testament) and sacraments (New Testament), were subservient to faith. See COR
16.117-118, on Gal. 5.3, COR 16.97, on Gal. 4.9 and COR 16.119, on Gal. 5.6. Calvin explicitly rejects the Catholic concept of opus operatum, and explains that in baptism and in the Lord's Supper, it is God alone who works, not humans, and thus there is no merit in the performance of the rites themselves (opus operatum). COR 16.118, on Gal. 5.3. In line with this, Calvin uses the term 'aids to faith' (fidei adminicula) to describe the purpose of sacraments. COR 16.119, on Gal. 5.6.
881Neque exigua res significatur his veribs: 'Qui semetipsum pro peccatis nostris dedit.' Praemonere enim Galatas voluit peccatorum expiationem et hac ratione perfectam iustitiam non alibi quaerendam esse quam in Christo, quia se obtulerit Patri in sacrificium, et talem esse hostiam, cui alias quasvis satisfactiones opponere sit nefas. See COR 16.15, on Gal. 1.4. decreed our atonement while Christ put it into practice by giving himself as a satisfaction for human sin.882 Further, because humans are atoned for and justified by Christ alone, one ought not to require the observance of ceremonial observances as necessary to justification – faith in Christ alone means deliverance from bondage to the law.883 Moreover, Christ has removed the distinction between the Jews and other nations in making the Jew and the Greek one, by the fact that adoption and salvation are found in him alone for both alike.884
Union with Christ (unio cum Christo) is not a frequently occurring concept in Calvin's Galatians but it is nevertheless once described in illuminating detail with a number of brief further allusions to the theme. Union with Christ will be examined here in reference to Calvin's metaphors of the concept, with regard to ways in which one's union with Christ may be understood and in relation to an explanation of how and why union with Christ takes place.
Calvin mentions three different metaphors to picture the believer's union with Christ. Wendel has indicated appropriately that for Calvin union with Christ does not suggest any kind of mystic union (or deification) between the believer and Christ.885 It is with this perspective in mind that Calvin's metaphors for the believer's union with Christ in his Galatians can be properly evaluated. First,
Calvin notes that believers are united to Christ and become one with him as sap is connected its the root.886 Having become one with Christ, the Christian is crucified
882Goumaz notes on the central role of Christ for salvation in Calvin's New Testament Commentaries, 'Christ seul a réalisé cette compensation pour le péché, et il l'a réalisée tout entière, rendant ainsi Dieu présent à ses enfants. En lui se trouve donc la plénitude du salut, d'un salut dans lequel il nous garde à jamais et dont « accidentellement », sont exclus ceux-là seuls que leur malice ècarte. Ainsi, la
« fonction » propre du Christ est de sauver, bien que plusieurs de ceux qui ont été « appelés » restent condamnés'. Goumaz 1917: 433.
883COR 116.15, on Gal. 1.4 and COR 116.17, on Gal. 1.6.
884Omnes enim unum Christus facit. Utcunque iqitur alia sint diversa, sufficit unus Christus ad omnes copulandoes. Ideo dicit: "Unus estis." COR 16.87, on Gal. 3.28. For the larger context, see COR 16.87885Wendel affirms, 'In ne s'agit pas, lorsque Calvin parle d'union ou de communion avec Christ, d'une absorption en Christ ou d'une identification mystique qui diminuerait tant soit peu la personnalité humaine ou qui tirerait le Christ à nous. L'auteur de l'Institution s'était montré trop hostile, jusqu'à present, à toute glorification ou déification de l'homme, et surtout de l'homme terrestre et pécheur, pour qu'on püt le soupconner de vouloir y revenir par ce détour. Mais la communion avec Christ n'en est pas moins des plus étroites, tout en laissant subsister intégralement les propriétés de l'homme et celles du
Christ.' Wendel 1950: 176-177. This is further clarified in Calvin's explicit rejection of Osiander's views. See Wendel 1950: 177 and the 1559 version of the Institutio 3.11.5-11 (CO 2.3.11.5-11).
886Modum exprimit, qualiter Legi mortui Deo vivamus, quum scilicet insiti in mortem Christi arcanam inde vim, tanquam surculus a radice, haurimus. … Sed meminerimus non aliter nos solvi a iugo Legis, quam dum efficimur unum cum Christo. COR 16. 54-55, on Gal. 2.19. In this instance, Calvin already explains the phrase 'Cum Christo sum crucifixus', which is a part of Gal. 2.20, not Gal. 2.19 as COR 16 appears to suggest. COR 16 seems to have followed CO 50 (Corpus Reformatorum), which also includes the explanation of this phrase ('Cum Christo sum crucifixus') under Calvin's exposition of the phrase 'Ut Deo viverem' of Gal. 2.19. Compare COR 16.54-55 with CO 50.198-199, on Gal. 2.19. The English translations appear to have noticed the discrepancy, as Achtebarder begins Gal. 2.20 from the with him, and thus delivered from the bondage of the law. According to the second metaphor, the believers live outside of themselves in Christ and in heaven seen through the eye of faith, while outwardly perceived they remain in the world.887
According to the third metaphor, the believer's union with Christ is illustrated by a garment of Christ put on the believer, which indicates that the Christian is so closely united with the Saviour that he is viewed in him by God, and what is Christ's is seen to be the believer's.888
Calvin draws an interesting delineation of two ways in which the believer's union with Christ may be understood in Gal. 2.20. On the one hand, it may refer to the Spirit of regeneration889 and on the other, to justification, which would in that case be a reference to sharing Christ's righteousness.890 Calvin considers exegetically more probable that Gal. 2.20 refers to justification, but has no qualms over seeing both regeneration and justification alluded to here.891 phrase 'Cum Christo sum crucifixus' and Parker omits verse numbering altogether for Gal. 2.20.
Compare Achtebarder 1854 with Parker 1965 in their translations of Gal. 2.19-20.
887Insignis sententia, fideles extra se vivere, hoc est in Christo. Quod fieri nequit, quin veram cum ipso et substantialem communicationem habeant. … Plenus denique est Paulus talibus testimoniis, quibus asserit ita nos vivere in mundo, ut in caelo tamen etiam vivamus; non modo quia illic est caput nostrum, sed etiam quod iure unionis vitam habemus cum ipso cummunem, ut loquitur Iohan.14,1. COR 16.55-56, on Gal. 2.20. Calvin discusses a similar concept in his sermon on Gal. 2.20-21, where he maintains that believers are dead towards their own nature, but alive elsewhere, in Christ. Calvin affirms, 'Dieu nous a donné sa parole, que nous estans morts en nostre nature, nous avons nostre vie ailleurs, d'autant que nostre Seigneur Iesus Christ nous esté envoyé à ceste condition-là de nous amener de mort à vie. CO
50.446, Quatorzieme sermon, Galates 2.20-21.
888Utitur similitudine vestis, quum dicit Galatas Christum induisse. Sed intelligit Christo sic esse insitos, ut coram Deo nomen ac personam Christi gerant ac in ipso magis quam in seipsis censeantur. COR
16.86, on Gal. 3.27. The notion of Christ as having been put on the believer as a garment is closely connected to the sacrament of baptism in Calvin's discussion. Calvin asks himself in what way the sacrament of baptism is efficacious in putting on Christ since it appears so evident that many do not receive its benefit. He replies that the sacrament remains effective and true – the difference lies in the recipient. The wicked reject it and the believers accept it. On the other hand, the symbol itself is ineffective for those who proudly lay claim to the bare symbol itself, probably referring to the Catholic concept opus operatum associated with the sacraments. COR 16.86-87, on Gal. 3.27. See also footnote
880 in the section dealing with the difference between the Old and New Testaments.
889See also Calvin's exposition of Gal. 4.19 where he explicitly associates union with Christ with the renewal and new life of the Christian. Calvin states, Porro Christum in nobis formari et nos in Christo idem est. Nascimur enim, ut simus novae in ipso creaturae, et ipse vicissim nascitur in nobis, ut vivamus eius vitam. COR 16.104, on Gal. 4.19.
890It is in this sense, as being united to Christ in order to be justified that Calvin interprets the same passage in Deux congrégations. C'est que nous ne vivons point en nous, mais en Iesus Christ; c'est à dire que nostre salut est hors de nous-mesmes. ... Nostre vie est en Iesus Christ, que nous sommes participans de tous ses biens et par consequent de sa iustice.' DC 28,29 (62,65).
891Porro vivit Christus in nobis dupliciter. Una vita est, quum nos Spiritu suo gubernat atque actiones nostras omnes dirigit; altera, quod participatione suae iustitiae nos donat, ut quando in nobis non possumus, in ipso accepti simus Deo. Prior ad regenerationem pertinet, secunda ad gratuitam iustitiae acceptionem, de qua hunc locum intelligo, quanquam si quis de utraque accipere malit, minime repugnem. COR 16.55, on Gal. 2.20. Neuser argues that a concept of a double justification (doppelten
Rechtfertigung) is central to Calvin's understanding of justification. (See the above statement of Calvin also explains how and why union with Christ takes place.
The love of Christ lies behind the union in that it is Christ's love which led to the fact that Christ chose to unite himself with humans and suffer in our person. Christ became a sinner, not in himself, but in us, freeing us from God's wrath and making the Christian a partaker of the benefits of Christ, including atonement, cleansing and satisfaction.892
5.1.5. Law and Gospel Law and gospel is a theme, which could easily cover much more ground than discussed below. However, the analysis here is limited to the passages where the relationship or the contrast between law and gospel is being treated.
There are at least two ways in which gospel and law relate to each other in Calvin's Galatians. On the one hand their relationship is either/or while on the other there is no contradiction between them, recognized also in Hesselink's study of the law and gospel in Calvin's Galatians.893
The relationship of the law and gospel as either/or is first briefly examined. When it comes to the issue of justification, as noted in section 5.1.1., law and gospel are contraries, law on one side, and faith and God's promise against it on the other. Calvin affirms,
'The contradiction between the law and faith lies in the cause of justification. You will more easily unite fire and water than reconcile the two statements that men are justified by faith and by the law. The law is not of faith, that is, it has a method of justifying a man which is completely foreign to faith.'894
Calvin's, 'Porro vivit Christus in nobis dupliciter'). However, mirroring Calvin's strict exclusion of regeneration and good works from justification, Neuser also points to the priority of righteousness by faith (Glaubensgerechtigkeit) over the imperfect righteousness represented by the believer's good works
(Gerechtigkeit aus den [Glaubens]- Werken), a prioritising which seems central to Calvin's position also, according to this study. Neuser states, 'Calvin argumentiert mit grosser Vorsicht. Die Lehre von der doppelten Rechtfertigung – das war Voraussetzung für jeden evangelischen Theologen – löst den
Glauben nicht in die Werke auf, sondern lässt die Glaubensgerechtigkeit unversehrt bestehen. Sie ist die eigentliche Gerechtigkeit. .. Auch in einer zweiten Überlegung will er den Vorrang der
Glaubensgerechtigkeit wahren. ... Neben der Glaubensgerechtigkeit muss eine Gerechtigkeit aus den (Glaubens-) Werken gelehrt warden. Doch ist diese die hauptsächliche Gerechtigkeit, jene muss ihr untergeordnet werden. Was untergeordnet wird, widerspricht der Hauptaussage nicht.' Neuser 1969: 182.
892COR 16.56, on Gal. 2.20 and COR 16.71, on Gal. 3.13.
893Hesselink explains the 'surprise' relating to Calvin's notion on the law and gospel in his Galatians by affirming that there is 'not only a relative difference but also an antithesis between the law and the gospel' in Calvin's commentary. See Hesselink 1984: 78-79.
894Ergo repugnantia Legis et fides est in causa iustificationis. Facilius enim aquam igni copulabis, quam haec duo concilies: homines fide et Lege esse iustos. Lex ergo non est ex fide, hoc est: rationem iustificandi hominis a fide prorsus alienam habet. COR 16.69-70, on Gal. 3.12.
When one deals with justification, one must put aside all ceremonial observances and works of the law, and look to God's grace and Christ alone.895 The law only leads to death, condemning humans, while it is God's grace which raises one to another kind of life, the life of faith.896
A further contrast between the law and gospel is found in Calvin's discussion on Hagar and Sarah. He maintains that as there were two mothers in Abraham's household, there are also two mothers in the church today. The two mothers are represented by two kinds of doctrine, the legal and the evangelical, representing bondage and freedom.897 These two kinds of doctrine are looked at by Paul from two perspectives. First, law and gospel can be seen as representing two time periods. During the time of the law in the Old Testament the law functioned as a schoolmaster, keeping the people as slaves outwardly, under the law. Despite this, in the sight of God, the patriarchs of the Old Testament were inwardly free. During the time of the gospel, on the other hand, there is both an inward and an outward freedom, which begins at the birth of the Christian.898 Second, law and gospel can be viewed as two contrary ways to salvation. The law represents the law of the hypocrites, who, like Ishmael and the papists today, seek salvation by law and its works.899 The gospel, by way of contrast, stands for heavenly grace, the Holy Spirit, faith, promise, free grace and the blessing of God, which belong to the true church and to the true children of God.900 Calvin sums up,
'All the promises, being grounded in the Messiah, are free. It was because the apostle took this for granted that he so fearlessly contrasted the promise to the law.'901
895Anticipat omnes tergiversationes asserens haec esse contraria: salutem ex Lege et ex promissione nobis obvenire. Quis hoc de solis caeremoniis audeat exponere, quum generaliter comprehendat Paulus, quicquid gratuitae promissioni repugnat? COR 16.76, on Gal. 3.18.
896COR 16.54, on Gal. 2.19.
897Doctrina enim mater est, ex qua nos Deus generat. Ea est duplex, legalis et euangelica. Legalis in servitutem generat ; est igitur similis Agar. Sara autem repraesentat secundam, quae generat in libertatem. COR 16.108, on Gal. 4.24.
898See the whole exposition of Gal. 4.24 in COR 16.108-109. See also a related discussion above on the relationship between Old and New Testaments in section 5.1.3.
899Admonet ergo non esse mirum, si faciant hodie filii Legis, quod fecit initio pater ipsorum Ismael, qui verum haeredem Isaac vexavit primogenitura sua fretus. … Ita larvam concedit Legis et operum sectatoribus, rem vero ipsam vendicat iis, qui sola Dei vocatione nituntur et pendent ex eius gratia. COR
16.112, on Gal. 4.29. See also the whole discussion in COR 16.108-109, on Gal. 4.24 and COR 16.110112, on Gal. 4.26-29. Calvin draws attention to Paul's contrast between circumcision and the gospel in his exposition of Gal. 5.2-3. Calvin explains that when viewed as meritorious and as an aspect of the legal covenant, circumcision became a threat to the pure gospel. This corresponds to the notion of the contemporary papacy claiming merit for their ceremonial observances. Ascribing part of the justification to works, they lose Christ altogether. See COR 16.116-117, on Gal. 5.2-3.
900COR 16.110-111, on Gal. 4.26-27.
901Promissiones omnes in Messia fundatas esse gratuitas. Id pro confesso quia sumebat Apostolus, ideo tam secure promissionem Legi opposuit. COR 16.111, on Gal. 4.27.
On the other hand, when the relationship between the law and the gospel is looked at from a wider perspective, there is no real contradiction between them. There would be a true contradiction only if the law could justify. If the law could justify, then there would be two possible, yet contrary ways to salvation, one through the law and another through faith. However, as the law cannot justify, there is no disagreement between law and gospel.902 The law has its legitimate purpose elsewhere, but in the issue of justification, one must look to God's grace alone.903
5.2. Work of the Holy Spirit There are a number of brief treatments on the work of the Holy Spirit in Calvin's Galatians in addition to one fairly lengthy address on the struggle between the Spirit and the flesh in Gal. 5.15-26. Calvin's theological comment relating to the work of the Holy Spirit is examined in reference to the hearing of faith, regeneration, assurance of salvation and the struggle between the Spirit and the flesh.
5.2.1. Hearing of Faith Calvin's comment on the role of the Holy Spirit relating to the hearing of faith is very brief. Calvin affirms that the Holy Spirit is received at the hearing of, and through the gospel. The receiving of the Spirit takes place by faith, not law.904 In the same context Calvin further considers whether the Spirit in this instance referred to regeneration or the visible gifts of the Spirit905 and prefers the view that it is regeneration, bringing into view an aspect not present in Luther's discussion of the hearing of faith.906
902Nam Legem et promissiones ab eo profectas esse constat. Quisquis ergo aliquid inter eas repugnantiae inducit, in Deum est blasphemus. Repugnant autem, si Lex iustificat. ... Tunc enim adversaretur Lex promissionibus, si vim haberet iustificandi. Essent enim duae rationes contrariae iustificandi hominis et veluti duae viae inter se dissidentes ad consequendam iustitiam. Paulus autem hoc adimit Legi. Sublata igitur est repugnantia. COR 16.81-82, on Gal. 3.21.
903See COR 16.69-70, on Gal. 3.12 and COR 16.74-76, on Gal. 3.17-18.
904Spiritum receperant audito Euangelio. Ergo fidei, non Legi debebant acceptum referre hoc bonum. … Mihi videtur allusisse Paulus ad id, quod dixerat de Spiritus, acsi dixisset: Quum Euangelii doctrina
Spiritum sanctum vobis attulerit, ergo exordium vestrum fuit spirituale. COR 16.61 and COR 16.62 on Gal. 3.2 and Gal. 3.3. See also COR 16.78, on Gal. 3.19.
905Calvin briefly addresses the notion of the gifts of the Spirit in his exposition of Gal. 3.5 and explains that the gifts of the Spirit are fruits of the gospel. However, they can be lost through the influence of false teaching.
906Fidem hic metonymice appellat Euangelium, quod alibi vocat doctrinam fidei: quia illic nobis proponitur mera Dei gratia in Christo, sine operum meritis. Spiritum hic pro gratia regenerationis, quae communis est omnium fidelium, accipio. Quanquam si quis malit accipere pro donis particularibus, quibus tunc Dominus Euangelii praedicationem ornabat, per me erit liberum. COR 16.61, on Gal. 3.2.
See also COR 16.62-63, on Gal. 3.5.
Calvin nowhere treats the concept of regeneration in much detail. There are a number of brief references to the notion, however.
Regeneration is defined by Calvin as a contrast to the world, just as spirit is a contrast to the flesh.907 Regeneration also refers to the renewed nature or to the Holy Spirit.908 Furthermore, regeneration is something that belongs to all genuine Christians, and is a testimony before God of one's renewed status.909
Commenting on the relationship of regeneration, the Spirit and the law, Calvin affirms that until the Spirit regenerates a person, the law only increases one's guilt.
In regeneration, however, the Spirit writes the law on the believer's heart.910
The relationship of regeneration to justification is briefly explained twice by Calvin and is rather interesting in relation to Luther's position on the concept. On the one hand Calvin sees regeneration and justification as connected while on the other he sees them as distinct. The first deals with Calvin's comments on union with Christ, or Christ living in the believer. Calvin has no qualms about regarding union with Christ as referring both to the Spirit of regeneration and to justification at the same time (though he thinks it exegetically more likely that justification is referred to in this passage). Calvin explains that regeneration in this context refers to the Spirit's governing and direction of all the believer's actions.
Justification, on the other hand, is seen as indicating that the believer shares in Christ's righteousness by faith.911 In his comment on Galatians 5.6, Calvin further explains the nature of regeneration. He affirms that the Spirit of regeneration cannot be separated from faith. However, when one discusses justification, the exclusive particle must be maintained and all works be set aside, pointing to the fact that 907Sung igitur mundus et regeneratio res inter se oppositae, sicuti natura et gratia, caro et spiritus. COR
908At times Calvin comments on the Holy Spirit in an impersonal way, for instance maintaining that the Spirit denotes regeneration (COR 16.61, on Gal. 3.2, COR 16.129, on Gal. 5.17) or one's renewed nature
(COR 16.129, on Gal. 5.17). This, however, ought by no means to be seen as indicating that Calvin would see the Holy Spirit as impersonal. It seems more plausible to regard the reason for these comments to be the fact that regeneration and the renewed nature of the Christian are so completely dependent on the Holy Spirit, that Calvin sometimes saw it as appropriate to treat these concepts as if they were synonyms for the Spirit.
909Regeneration as a testimony of being God's own is contrasted by Calvin with regarding circumcision as one's rightful claim to God's family. See COR 16.61, on Gal. 3.2 and COR 16.149, on Gal. 6.16.
910COR 16.78, on Gal. 3.19. Calvin also maintains that everything which is not new creature must perish – conversely, if one wants to count oneself as belonging to Christ's kingdom, one ought to be created anew. Ratio est, cur sit mundo crucifixus et mundus illi, quia in Christo, cui insitus est, solum valet nova creatura. Alia igitur omnia facessere, imo interire oportet. COR 16.148, on Gal. 6.15.
911Porro vivit Christus in nobis dupliciter. Una vita est, quum nos Spiritu suo gubernat atque actiones nostras omnes dirigit; altera, quod participatione suae iustitiae nos donat, ut quando in nobis non possumus, in ipso accepti simus Deo. Prior ad regenerationem pertinet, secunda ad gratuitam iustitiae acceptionem, de qua hunc locum intelligere licebit, quanquam si quis de utraque accipere malit, minime repugnem. COR 16.55, on Gal. 2.20.
Calvin nevertheless strictly distinguishes between justification and regeneration when one's acceptance with God is considered.912
5.2.3. Assurance of Salvation Calvin maintains that the Holy Spirit directs the believers to regard God as their Father.913 It is by faith that one receives an assurance of the Father's love toward oneself.914 The adoption by God of the believer into God's family is certain, in contrast to the uncertainty and doubt required by the scholastic theologians regarding whether or not one has God's Spirit.915 Calvin sees the issue as so central that he asserts,
'For where the pledge of the divine love towards us is wanting, there is assuredly no faith. Hence it is plain what sort of Christianity there is in the papacy, where they accuse of pious presumption any man who says that he has the Spirit of God. … For they imagine a faith without the Spirit of God and without certainty. This single dogma that they hold is clear proof that in all the schools of the Papists, the devil, the father of unbelief, reigns.'916
912Nos autem veram fidem negamus a Spiritu regenerationis posse divelli. Sed quum de iustificationis causa agitur, tunc excludimus omnia opera. COR 16.120, on Gal. 5.6.
913Spiritus Christi, inquit, vobis author est atque hortator, ut audeatis Patrem vocare Deum. Ergo certum est vos esse Dei filios. COR 16.94, on Gal. 4.6.
914In his sermons on Galatians, Calvin draws attention to the importance of coming to trust in God's favour toward oneself despite one's unworthiness. He further maintains that it is impossible not to have confidence before God if one keeps before one's eyes the remission (quittance) of sin accomplished for us (qui nous a esté faite) through Jesus' death. In n'y aura donc nulle franchise en nos ames, iusques à ce que nous ayons cognu et que nous soyons bien persuadez que Dieu nous est propice, et qu'il nous recoit en son amour et en sa grace, combien que nous n'en soyons pas dignes. Or il est impossible d'avoir nulle certitude, sinon que tousiours nous ayons devant les yeux nostre quittance qui nous a esté faite en la mort et passion de nostre Seigneur Iesus Christ.' CO 50.658, Trenteunieme Sermon, on Gal. 5.1-3. Further, in his Deux congrégations, Calvin closely associates the believer's union with Christ with one's assurance of salvation. C'est que nous ne vivons point en nous, mais en Iesus Christ; c'est à dire que nostre salut est hors de nous-mesmes. Non pas que nous n'ayons l'asseurance en nous, car le S. Esprit nous en est une arre, comme il est dit par S. Paul, et nous avons la signature de nostre adoption par luy, que la certitude de la grace de Dieu nous est seellée. Et au reste, Iesus Christ habite en nous, qui est aussi matiere de nostre salut. DC 28 (62). Emphasis in the original.
915Calvin sharply critiques the council of Trent for its rejection of the evangelical doctrine highlighting the importance of assurance of faith in 1547, the year following the composition of Calvin's Galatians.
Calvin asserts that the removal of assurance which the papal church does by its doctrine, equals the destruction of one's faith. Imo omnem veram Dei invocationem isti evertunt, cum piorum animos trepidatione suspendunt, quae sola nobis ianuam praecludit. Qui haesitat, inquit Iacobus (1,6) similes est fluctui maris, qui a vento circunfertur. Non ergo existiment tales, se quidquam impetraturos a Domino, sed qui vult exorare, nihil haesitet. Notande est antithesis inter fidem, et haesitationem: unde colligere promptum est, fidem destrui, simul ac tollitur certitudo. CO 7.456. Also in Busch et al 1999 (Calvin
Studienausgabe – band 3): 168.
916Sicuti revera nulla est fides, ubi non est pignus hoc divini erga nos amoris. Hinc apparet, qualis sit in Papatu Christianismus, ubi impiae praesumptionis damnant, si quis Dei Spiritum habere se dicat. Fidem enim sine Dei Spiritu et sine certitudine imaginantur. Hoc unum dogma illustri argumento est diabolum infidelitatis patrem in omnibus Papistarum scholis regnare. COR 16.95, on Gal. 4.6.
Therefore, the believers ought not to listen to argumentation grounded on human judgment which questions one's assurance of salvation, but instead believe the testimony of the Spirit in one's heart, which confirms to the believers that they are children of God. The crying for the Father (Clamantem:
Abba Pater)917 of the Christian is therefore crying with boldness and unwavering confidence.918 The last comment of the whole commentary is Calvin's further accentuation of the importance of assurance of salvation. Calvin stresses, commenting on the last phrase of the epistle (Gratia Domini nostri Iesu Christi cum spiritu vestro), how important it is that the feeling of grace reaches to 'our spirit'
(spiritum nostrum).919
Calvin's Galatians does not consider in any detail the question of the works of regenerate Christians as confirmation for the fact that they are the children of God.920 Instead, Calvin gives some attention to the concept of adoption.
Calvin sees a direct connection between assurance of salvation and adoption, and states that 'the effect is the sign of the cause' (effectus signum est causae).921 Thus, if one has the confidence to call God one's Father, it is a sure sign that one has indeed been adopted into the family of God.922
5.2.4. Struggle between the Spirit and the Flesh The struggle between the Spirit and the flesh is examined in reference to Calvin's definition of the Spirit and the flesh, the nature of the struggle and finally, briefly examining Calvin's comment on the works of the flesh and the fruits of the Spirit.
The Spirit and the flesh are defined differently in various parts of Calvin's discussion. On the one hand, the Spirit refers to renewed nature while the flesh represents the natural human nature or human corruption, which is as far from righteousness as fire is distinct from water.923 On the other hand, the flesh
917To be exact, Calvin only mentions the word Clamantem in his comment. However, it is clear from the context that he refers to crying to the Father with boldness. See on Gal. 4.6.
918COR 16.95, on Gal. 4.6. See the whole context in COR 16.94-96, on Gal. 4.6. See also Goumaz 1917:
432 on the relationship between the gratuituous nature of salvation and assurance of faith.
919Ita gratiam illis precatur, ut non modo se liberaliter in eos effundat, sed eam quoque vero animi sensu apprehendant. Tunc enim vere illa fruimur, dum ad spiritum nostrum pervenit. COR 16.150, on Gal.
6.18. Calvin makes no direct reference to the Holy Spirit in his last comment. However, as the work of the Holy Spirit is clearly connected with assurance of salvation elsewhere in Calvin's commentary, it seems appropriate to discuss this reference, too, under the theme of the work of the Holy Spirit.
920Järveläinen argues that while Calvin sees assurance of salvation as a 'sign for election', in contrast to Luther, he does not 'elaborate any detailed theory for distinguishing between subjective and objective certainty.' The notion was developed further by Jonathan Edwards in later Calvinism, however,
Järveläinen affirms. Järveläinen 2000: 100, 104-113.
921Adoptionem cuius meminerat, ad Galatas pertinere ostendit argumento a consequenti. Prius enim est adoptatum esse a Deo quam habere a Spiritu Dei testimonium adoptionis. Sed effectus signum est causae. Spiritus Christi, inquit, vobis author est atque hortator, ut audeatis Patrem vocare Deum. Ergo certum est vos esse Dei filios. COR 16.94, on Gal. 4.6.
922COR 16.94, on Gal. 4.6.
923COR 16.129-130, on Gal. 5.17. See also COR 16.135, on Gal. 5.24. represents concern for earthly things and the Spirit for the heavenly.924 Also, the flesh can be seen as referring to ceremonies without Christ or dead doctrine, while the Spirit is the opposite of seeing oneself as belonging to God by virtue of circumcision and lineal descent.925
The nature of the struggle between the Spirit and the flesh is outlined in some detail in Calvin's exposition of Gal. 5.16-20. Without God's Spirit humans are totally depraved and corrupt. Corruption permeates the total human being including what is best in them - their free will, for instance. Calvin explains that in themselves humans are nothing but flesh. That is why in their natural carnal state humans experience no battle between the Spirit and the flesh because they are completely under sin.926 When a person has been regenerated by the Spirit, however, holy affections come into being and a struggle begins in which both the flesh and the Spirit strive for domination. In this struggle, the Spirit has the upper hand so that one does not fulfil the lusts of the flesh. The death of the flesh, Calvin asserts, is the life of the Spirit.927 The human agent cooperates with the Spirit in this struggle by labour, fighting and self-denial.928 Despite the rule of the Spirit over the flesh, however, one is not perfect. Calvin affirms,
'Paul therefore declares that believers, so long as they are in this life, are not so victorious that they serve God perfectly, however much they strive.'929
Nonetheless, because the believers are no longer under the law, God regards them as if their conduct was totally perfect. The Spirit liberates one from the dominion of the law and therefore one can rest assured of one's acceptance in God' sight.930
It seems unnecessary to outline Calvin's explanation of the works of the flesh and the fruit of the Spirit in much detail. Instead, we will indicate only one important aspect of Calvin's exposition relating to both the works of the flesh and the fruit of the Spirit. First, following his comment on the works of the flesh
924COR 16.142-143, on Gal. 6.8.
925COR 16.62, on Gal. 3.3 and COR 16.71, on Gal. 3.14.
926Quum itaque tota hominis natura rebellis sit ac contumax adversus Dei Spiritum. ... Hic videmus, quo encomio Dominus ingenium nostrum ornet, quod scilicet nihilo melius illi cum rectitudine conveniat quam igni cum aqua. COR 16.129-130, on Gal. 5.17. For further comment on Calvin's view on the depravity of man, see section 5.6.5.
927Non quia penitus adhuc interierit caro, sed quia regnum exercere non debeat, quin potius Spiritui cedere. COR 16.135, on Gal. 5.24. For the larger context, see COR 16.133-135, on Gal. 5.22-25.
928Sudandum est ac serio pugnandum visque nobis inferenda, ut Spiritui obsequamur. Quare incipiendum a nostri abnegatione. COR 16.129-130, on Gal. 5.17.
929Pronuntiat itaque Paulus fideles, quantumcunque nitantur, non tamen eo usque eluctari, quandiu sunt in hac vita, ut perfecte Deo serviant. Volunt quidem et cupiunt, sed non respondet plenus affectus. COR
16.130, on Gal. 5.17.
930Hic est enim Spiritus, quem prius vocavit adoptionis. Qui quum liberos faciat homines, manumittit eos a iugo Legis. ... Nam tunc soluti eritis a Legis imperio, quia Lex erit tantum liberalis doctrina, quae vos admoneat. COR 16.130, on Gal. 5.18.
Calvin maintains that flesh includes, not only sensuality, but also the highest faculties of human beings, in accordance with his concept on the corruption of humans.931 Conversely, following his exposition of some of the fruits of the Spirit, he comments that anything good in humans is due to the Spirit of God and God's grace.932
The concept of the law is expounded in less detail in Calvin's Galatians than in Luther's Galatians. Therefore, there is no clear point by point description of the three uses of the law to be found in Calvin's Galatians, as there is in his Institutio, for instance. Nevertheless, the notion of the law is an important concept in the commentary.
Engels has given focused attention to Calvin's idea of the law in his commentaries on Paul. Compared to Engels' presentation of the subject, Calvin's concept of the law is presented here in a narrower sense than in Engels'. In his discussion Engels insightfully considers the larger context for Calvin's concept of the law relating to God's covenant and the relationship between the Old and New
Testaments.933 While recognizing the validity of Engels linking of these themes, due to constraints of space and due to the fact that the relationship between the Old and New Testaments has already been discussed above, it seems better to limit the discussion here to Calvin's explicit treatment on the law in his Galatians.
Calvin's theological comment will be treated in three parts, relating to a) law as abrogated, b) the second and third uses of the law and c) ceremonial observances in Christian life. There are no direct references to Calvin's second use of the law (the law as a restraint in society for the wicked) in the commentary, and that is why this concept of Calvin's is not discussed any further here.
5.3.1. Abrogation of the Law First, we will highlight a consideration relating to the definition of the law in Calvin's Galatians. Calvin, as well as Luther, rejects the notion that the abrogation of the law in Galatians deals exclusively with the ceremonial law. The abolishing of the law, which Paul discusses in Galatians, relates to all law, whether the moral or 931COR 16.132, on Gal. 5.19. See also COR 16.129, on Gal. 5.17.
932COR 16.133, on Gal. 5.22. Calvin also affirms that it is not sufficient to identify one of the fruits of the Spirit in a person and conclude that they are true fruits of the Spirit. Other vices in the person may reveal that the flesh still reigns. Ita non aestimandum esse hominem spiritualem ab una virtute. Nam interea perspicuum fiet ex aliis vitiis carnem in illo dominari. See COR 16.134, on Gal. 5.22.
933See Engels 1967, vol.1: 17-73. the ceremonial. Thus Calvin defines the law in Galatians in the same way as Luther - the law which Paul discusses is the whole law.934
Calvin's Galatians, much alike Luther's commentary, identifies and rejects what Luther calls the abuse of the law – law used for the purpose of attaining righteousness. This, according to Calvin, is antithetical to the concept of grace alone, whether one maintains the whole or a part of one's righteousness as being based on the works of the law.935 In this sense the whole law is abolished. The law had a legitimate role until the coming of Christ, but after his coming it had performed its function and the Mosaic office came to its end. Having affirmed in his comment on Gal. 3.19 and 3.25 that the law is abolished, however, Calvin on both occasions takes care to add that the law is not abolished completely or in that sense that it would have no meaning for the Christian.936 Its abrogation relates only to the issue of justification.937
In his exposition of Gal. 5.23, Calvin further illuminates the relationship between the law and the Christian. The freedom of the Christian from the law, both from its condemnation and from the observance of the ceremonies connected to the Old Testament covenant, is closely tied to the reign of the Spirit in the Christian heart.938 While the law continues its role of 'teaching and exhorting'
934For the definition of the law in Galatians as the whole law in Calvin's Galatians, see COR 16.8-9, Argumentum and COR 16.24, on Gal. 1.13.
935Unde apparet, quam pueriliter hodie ineptiant Papistae de dictione sola nobiscum rixando, perinde acsi nostra esset. Sed Paulo scilicet theologia Papistarum ignota erat. ... Ergo aut nihil aut totum adscribi debet fidei vel operibus. … Porro quemquam mortalium iustificari negans tantundem sumit, acsi diceret exclude cunctos mortals a iustitia Legis nec fieri posse, ut quis ad eam perveniat. COR 16.51-52, on Gal.
2.16. See the larger context of the discussion in COR 16.48-52, on Gal. 2.15-16.
936Sed quaeritur, an non debuerit durare nisi ad Christi adventum. Nam si ita est, sequitur nunc esse abrogatam. Respondeo totam illam administrationem temporalem fuisse, quoniam in eum finem posita erat, ut populum veterem in Christi fide contineret. Non tamen concede Christi adventu totam Legem fuisse abrogatam. Neque hoc voluit Apostolus, sed tantum, sed tantum genus illud regiminis, quod interpositum fuerat, debuisse finem accipere in Christo, qui est promissionis complementum. COR
16.78-79, on Gal. 3.19. See also COR 16.86, on Gal. 3.25. The ceremonial Mosaic law had its purpose before Christ, but at his coming it was abolished. Utrunque breviter definit: suo tempore non fuisse supervacuas et nunc abrogatas esse Christ [sic] adventu, quia sit ipsarum veritas et finis. Quare in eo manendum esse docet. COR 16.9, Argumentum.
937Niesel makes a similar observation, 'From all this it should have become clear that Clavin does not teach in the strict sense an abolition of the law. In this regard he is at one with the New Testament witness. Because he interprets the law exclusively in the light of Christ there can be no question of its annulment. Jesus Christ is the heart of the law. For this reason, while we are free from the curse and compulsion of the law, from its ceremonies and political ordinances, we remain bound to its inner content. Christ came precisely in order to fulfil the law and in view of our transgression to provide relief.' Niesel 1980: 100.
938Irena Backus, in her consideration of natural law in Calvin, draws attention to the fact that there is a sense in which the Mosaic law is in effect for the believer. Nevertheless, it is only the moral part of the law Calvin refers to as being still in effect, summed up in love toward God and love toward one's neighbour. Backus states, 'He [Calvin] then explains that only the moral part of Mosaic law pertains to Christians. This moral law can be summed up in one universal law, valid for all times and for all nations, which is the love of God and one's neighbour.' This, in turn, is the ground for natural law in Calvin. See
(officium docendo et exhortando), the believer lives a new life aside from the law, being adopted and regulated by the Spirit.939
5.3.2. First Use of the Law The greater part of Calvin's examination of the role of the law deals with its first use (roughly synonymous with Luther's second use of the law), that of the law as showing human sin and preparing one for Christ (usus elenchticus legis). The third use of the law, on the other hand, that of the positive function of the law in the life of the Christian (usus in renatiis), is alluded to briefly, but on several occasions.940
The first use of the law is discussed a) relating to the nature of the convicting role of the law, b) in terms of the differing roles of the law in the Old and New Testaments and c) in reference to the temporal nature of the first use of the law.
The first use of the law is treated on several occasions in Calvin's Galatians. In his comment on Gal. 3.19 and Gal. 3.22, Calvin explains that the law shows humans their sin in such a way that it only condemns, and by its sentence of everlasting destruction strikes fear into the heart, thus compelling humans to admit their guilt.941 In his exposition of Gal. 2.19, Calvin points to the same reality in a way that appears even more forceful. Calvin contrasts two kinds of death, that of the human agent with that of Christ. Calvin maintains that the law, in condemning humans, leads them both to despair and to death.942 This death needs an antidote,
Backus 2003: 25. Neither the concept of natural law nor the second use of the law relating to civil society is, however, referred to in any significant way in Calvin's Galatians. It also needs to be borne in mind that the concept of the abrogation of the law is important for the specific issues in Calvin's commentary on Galatians, because the abolishing of the law relates to justification. However, elsewhere the law, including the moral law, has its purpose and is necessary.
939Nempe quod ubi regit Spiritus, Lex non habeat amplius imperium. Nam Dominus corda nostra formando in suam iustitiam liberat nos a Legis rigore, ut non agat nobiscum ex eius pacto, nec conscientias nostras sub reatu teneat. Lex interea officium suum facere non desinit docendo et exhortando. Sed Spiritus adoptionis a subiectione liberat. COR 16.134, on Gal. 5.23. See also section
5.3.3. for further discussion on the third use of the law.
940In Catechismus Ecclesiae Genevensis 1545 Calvin classifies two offices for the law (duplex legis officium). The first is a condemning function toward unbelievers (corresponding to what is termed the second use elsewhere). The second function relates to believers and has three parts, including a) the preparing, humiliating function, leading the person to seek Christ b) the office of showing the inability of believers to obey the law perfectly, thus reminding of their guilt and keeping them from pride and c) the role of acting as a restraint for believers to keep them in the fear of the Lord. These three roles of the law for the believer losely correspond to the first and third uses of the law as discussed by Calvin elsewhere.
Compare e.g. OC 111.227-112.228 with InstFa: 176-184.
941Legem enim latam fuisse intelligit, ut transgressiones palam faceret eoque modo homines cogeret ad agnitionem sui reatus. ... Respondeo, utcunque veram iustitiam demonstret, tamen in hac naturae corruptione nihil quam augeri transgressiones eius doctrina, donec accedat Spiritus regenerationis, qui ipsam cordibus inscribat. COR 16.77-78, on Gal. 3.19. See also COR 16.82, on Gal. 3.22.
942Calvin discusses the first use of the law also in his Deux congrégations, pointing to the fact that the law 'kills' the one it convicts (Gal. 2.19) before the new life is obtained in Christ. Le peché est descouvert par la Loy et voyla comme elle nous occit. ... La Loy donc par accident nous tue, d'autant qu'elle nous est un miroir pour nous faire contempler nostre condemnation. ... S. Paul monstre que nostre
Seigneur Jesus Christ ne nous met point en condamnation, mais c'est la Loy ; et au reste, combien que another death, that of crucifixion with Christ for the purpose of finding life with God.943 Thus the law, in its first convicting role (usus elenchticus legis), has the specific purpose of preparing humans to find a remedy to their predicament through faith in Christ's free righteousness.
Calvin also briefly outlines the slightly differing roles of the law in the Old and New Testaments in his Galatians. Discussing Gal. 3.23-24, Calvin describes the law as a preparation for Christ in two ways, as a prison and as a schoolmaster. The law as a prison refers to the temporary function of the law for the people of the Old Testament. The law restricted them and limited them for their benefit, while at the same time the symbols of the law pointed them to Christ. The law as a schoolmaster, on the other hand, illustrates the function of the law as the grammar of theology for Christians today, leading them to faith.944 In this function
(usus elenchticus legis), the law works as a mirror, showing how far one is from the righteousness required by the law. Until something better than the law is found, one finds no rest.945
It is also evident in Calvin's discussion that the first role of the law is temporal. The convicting role of the law (usus elenchticus legis) comes to an end when the person, having sought the only possible remedy of Christ's grace, is clothed by Christ's righteousness through faith. It is therefore when the Spirit, in regeneration, comes and writes the law on human hearts (usus in renatiis) that the believer is freed from the convicting function of law.946
5.3.3. Christ the Mediator of the Law and the Third Use of the Law Engels has demonstrated the significance of the concept of Christ as the Mediator of the law in Calvin's commentaries on the epistles of Paul.947 The same concept nous mourons à la Loy quand nous sommes morts avec Christ, toutesfois que nous obtenons vie nouvelle. ... que nous apprenions de detester nos pechez et estre effrayez en telle sorte de son iugement, qu'estans desesperes en nous-mesmes, nous puissions confesser à bon escient les miseres et corruptions qui sont en nous ; à fin que nous embrassions nostre Seigneur Iesus Christ, pour nous tenir du tout à luy et ne mesler point nos ordures parmi sa pureté, mais que nous cognoissions qu'il est la racine et source du toute iustice. DC 24,25,27,31 (55, 60-61,70)
943COR 16.53-54, on Gal. 2.19. In his recent consideration of the first use of the law in Calvin, Elonheimo also maintains that the purpose of the law is not to lead the person to despair, but to prod them forward to seek God. Elonheimo states, 'Obwohl das Gesetz ihn unentschuldbar macht, ist sein Ziel nicht, den Menschen zur Verzweiflung und Hoffnungslosigkeit zu führen, sondern zur Suche nach Gott zu bringen.' Elonheimo 2006: 178.
944The illustration of prison as a description of the purpose of the law for the people of the Old Testament and the illustration of a schoolmaster delineating the role of the law for Christians are partly interchangeable. However, Calvin primarily treats them as separate concepts in the way they are outlined above.
945COR 16.83-85, on Gal. 3.23-24.
946COR 16.77-78, on Gal. 3.19 and COR 16.83-85, on Gal. 3.23-24.
947See Engels 1967, vol. 1: 48-54. Engels states, 'Christus ist der einzige Mittler; ausschliesslich durch die intercession meriti Christi wird Gottes Bund zu allen Zeiten vermittelt und zugeeignet. Auf Grund seiner gottheitlichen Gewalt … ist Christus sogar Geber und Urheber des Gesetzes … Christus als die appears also in Calvin's Galatians. Calvin creates no contrast between Moses and Christ in the way Luther does. While Luther identifies the mediator of the law as either angels or Moses in contrast to Christ who ordained only the Gospel,948
Calvin, in contradistinction to Luther, identifies Christ as the Mediator of the law.949
Thus Calvin regards Christ as the Giver of both the law and the gospel. This is evident also in his reference to three different mediatory roles of Christ, 1) the Mediator of reconciliation (Mediator reconciliationis), 2) Mediator of intercession
(Mediator patrocinii) and 3) Mediator of all doctrine (Mediator omnis doctrinae), the last one of which is the role assumed by Christ in his giving of the law. Calvin elucidates Paul's intent in the passage,
'He wanted to state this expressly that the Galatians might learn that He who is the foundation of the free covenant held also the primacy in giving the law.'950
Calvin's view on the third use of the law, that of its positive function in the life of the Christian, is also interesting in this context. Corresponding to his identification of Christ as the Mediator of both the law and the gospel, Calvin also regards the law as having not only a negative function of showing human sin, but also a positive function of instructing and correcting regenerate Christians.
Calvin sees this as the primary role of the law, although he sees that Paul's letter to the Galatians focuses more on the convicting function of the law.951
Interestingly, Calvin believes it important to caution that while Paul limits himself to one use of the law in the discussion regarding Gal. 3.19 (the convicting function), there are several other uses of the law, which it is dangerous to forget.952 In the same context, Calvin only mentions one further use of the law here, however, that of law as profitable for doctrine and exhortations (in reference to 2.
Tim. 3.16).953 It is also attention-grabbing that almost every time Calvin discusses Erfüllung und der Erfüller des Bundes ist Mittler von Gesetz und Evangelium. ' Engels 1967, vol. 1: 51,
948Compare WA 40a.494.28-32, on Gal. 3.19 with COR 16.79-80, on Gal. 3.19.
949At the same time, it needs to be borne in mind that in the same manner as Calvin draws a contrast between the law and the gospel with regards to justification, he can also talk of a contrast between Christ and the law (Christ does not condemn, the law does), as evident in his later statement in Deux congrégations. Nous avons donc encore maintenant l'intelligence de ce passage: c'est que S. Paul monstre que nostre Seigneur Iesus Christ ne nous met point en condamnation, mais c'est la Loy; et au reste, combien que nous mourons à la Loy quand nous sommer morts avec Christ, toutesfois que nous obtenons vie nouvelle. DC 27 (60-61).
950Et hoc nominatim exprimere voluit, ut discerent Galatae eundem, qui fundamentum sit gratuiti foederis, primas etiam tenuisse in Lege promulganda. COR 16.80, on Gal. 3.19.
951Compare Calvin's Institutio CO 1.3.101 with his statement in his commentary on Galatians in COR 952Video enim plerosque hallucinari, quod nullam aliam Legis utilitatem agnoscunt, quam quae hic notatur. COR 16.77, on Gal. 3.19. It could be postulated that Calvin here indirectly refers to Luther as seeing only one beneficial role for the law. See a brief discussion on the issue in section 2.4.3.4.
953COR 16.77, on Gal. 3.19. Presumably Calvin means by the many other uses of the law the second, civil use of the law and the various functions of the law under the heading of its third use, that of the law the first use of the law, he also briefly mentions the third use of the law, that of law as a positive guide for the Christian, not wanting to give the impression that there is no law whatsoever for the Christian. The content of these instances is briefly summarised here.
While the first function of the law is only temporal, the law in its third function is perpetual. In this function, the law acts as an everlasting rule for the Christian life. Calvin affirms,
'The Law, so far as it is a rule of life, is a bridle which keeps us in the fear of the Lord, a spur to correct the slackness of our flesh, in short, so far as it is profitable for teaching, correcting, reproving, that believers may be instructed in every good work, is as much in force as ever, and remains intact.'954
Accordingly, believers are under the law in all other senses except in relation to justification, a point at which the law is abrogated for believers.955 The third role of the law is therefore to be seen as a positive one, where the law acts kindly, teaching and exhorting, but not condemning or restraining the Christian conscience, which is free on account of Christ's righteousness.956
5.3.4. Ceremonial Observances in Christian Life Calvin maintains that the Mosaic ceremonial observances had their purpose and legitimate role during the time of the Old Testament. Now, however, after the coming of Christ, they are no longer in effect. Nevertheless, Christians are free to use ceremonies for the purpose of edification (usus in aedificationem), bearing in mind that their use does not deprive Christians of their liberty. The imposing of ceremonies to bind the conscience by the mediaeval church is therefore rejected.957
Sacraments, on the other hand, are maintained because they act as aids to faith (fidei adminicula) in Christ.958 as a positive guide in the Christian life. See also Catechismus Ecclesiae Genevensis 1545, where Calvin lists one role of the law relating to unbelievers and three functions of the law with reference to believers.
OC 111.227-112.228. See footnote 540 under section 5.3.2 for further detail.
954Respondeo Legem, quatenus regula est bene vivendi et fraenum, quo in timore Domini retinemur, et stimulus ad corrigendam pigritiam carnis nostrae, denique quatenus utilis est ad docendum, corrigendum, redarguendum, ut instituantur fideles ad omne bonum opus, hodie non minus valere quam olim menereque intactam. COR 16.87, on Gal. 3.23. See also COR 16.93, on Gal. 4.4, where Calvin states of the law in its third function, 'Regula enim bene et sancta vivendi perpetua est.'
955COR 16.236, on Gal. 4.21.
956COR 16.130, on Gal. 5.18 and COR 16.134, on Gal. 5.23.
957Liber enim erat caeremoniarum usus in aedificationem, modo non spoliarentur fideles sua libertate, nec illis necessitas imponeretur, a qua eos eximit Euangelium. COR 16.46-47, on Gal. 2.14. See also
COR 16.91-92, on Gal. 4.1 and COR 16.33, on Gal. 2.3. The observances of the Old Testament had the command of God behind them, while those required by the pope were demanded exclusively by a human authority. COR 16.91-92, on Gal. 4.1. See also on Gal. 2.14.
958COR 16.119, on Gal. 5.6. See section 5.6.4. for a brief discussion on Calvin's comment on the sacraments in his Galatians.
Commenting on Gal. 4.10, Calvin discusses the observance of days in civil society and affirms that civil observance of days contributes in a positive way to agriculture, politics, ordinary life and church government. These observances, however, ought not to be taken as binding, as they are in the papacy.959
Thus, with regard to all outward matters, Christians are free. In determining how to relate to issues which are indifferent (quum res media esset), what to observe and what to leave out, Calvin affirms, love for one's neighbour is the best guide.960
The concept of good works is discussed in three parts, beginning a) with a delineation of the relationship of good works to justification and Christian liberty and b) followed by an analysis of Calvin's exhortation relating to love as the motivation for good works and c) with regards to his comment on good works in practice.
5.4.1. Relationship of Good Works to Justification and Christian Liberty When Calvin expounds Gal. 3.12, 3.17-18 and 5.6, he gives focused attention to the issue of good works in relation to justification.961 Calvin strongly emphasises the importance of retaining the exclusive particle (regarding the exclusion of good works from justification) in the matter of justification (mordicus retine particulam exclusivam). Faith cannot be separated from the Spirit of regeneration, but when one discusses justification, one must take great care that love and works are excluded.962 Nevertheless, corresponding to Calvin's view regarding the positive, third use of the law, he explains that it is only in relation to the issue of justification that good works are antithetical to faith. While justification is by faith alone, faith never remains alone. Calvin asserts,
959COR 16.97-98, on Gal. 4.10. See also COR 16.91-92, on Gal. 4.1.
960Ergo charitas in usu rerum indifferentium optima erit moderatrix, si modo simper primus habeatur fidea respectus. COR 16.33, on Gal. 2.3.
961See also Calvin's Acta Synodi Tridentinae Cum Antidoto (1547) on the relationship of faith and good works. CO 7.453-455.
962Nos autem veram fiden negamus a spiritu regenerationis posse divelli. Sed quum de iustificationis causa agitur, tunc excludimus omnia opera. … Ergo quum versaris in causa iustificationis, cave ullam caritatis vel operum mentionem admittas: sed mordicus retine particulam exclusivam. COR 16.120, on Gal. 5.6. Goumaz argues that Calvin's view of the new life of the Christian does not threaten Christian freedom, instead, it establishes it. Goumaz states, 'La vie nouvelle, avec son abnégation, nous laisse-telle libres? demandions-nous. Réponse: non seulement elle nous laisse libres, mais elle nous rend libres.'
'It is not our doctrine that the faith which justifies is alone. We maintain that it is always joined with good works. But we contend that faith avails by itself for justification.'963
Faith leads to good works and consequently God's law ought to be kept. On the other hand, Calvin specifies, it is only those good works which are performed on the grounds of God's preceding acceptance of the person and faith which are acceptable in God's sight.964
How, on the other hand, is the notion of human merit relating to good works to be explained? Calvin answers by a four point clarification of the issue. He affirms, first of all that humans only perform good deeds on the basis of God's grace.965 Second, good works, done under the direction of the Spirit, are fruits of having been adopted by God and third, even these good deeds, performed by regenerated Christians, are stained by sin and thus, in themselves, would deserve only condemnation. Fourth, it must be borne in mind that a reward is due only if God's law is obeyed perfectly, which humans are far from achieving.966 Thus the papal position, that of merit acquired by works for the purpose of attaining eternal life, is rejected. According to Paul, as Calvin affirms, merit is indeed granted for good works, namely, for the benefits resulting from the believers' good deeds. This notion can be accepted because any good that the believers do is a result of God's free grace.967
Calvin also gives some attention to the relationship of good works to Christian liberty. He reaffirms that the conscience of the Christian is free, and 963Neque enim fidem, quae iustificat, docemus solam esse, sed bonis operibus perpetuo coniunctam esse asserimus. COR 16.120, on Gal. 5.6.
964COR 16.143, on Gal. 6.8. See also COR 16.75, on Gal. 3.17.
965Calvin maintains in his sermons on Galatians, rather like Luther, that it is only works performed on the grounds of faith, which God accepts and rewards. Compare with sections 4.3.2. and 4.4.2. Or notons aussi quand Dieu nous iustifie, que c'est par foy : c'est à dire par sa bontè gratuite et pure : et qu'alors il faut que nous acquiescions à sa promesse, en vertu de laquelle il nous approuve et accepte, voire et nos oevres quant et quant: non pas entant qu'elles procedent de nous: mais d'autant que nous les faisons par la grace de son S. Esprit, il les approuve et les allouë comme iustes, voire iusques à les remunerer, comme toute l'Escriture en es pleine. Mais tout cela aussi procede de la foy. Car quand nous sommes iustifiez de Dieu: c'est à dire reputez iustes, nos oeuvres sont aussi iustifiees: c'est à dire Dieu les repute pour iustes encores qu'il n'ay ait aucune dignité. CO 50: 489, Dixseptieme sermon, on Gal. 3.7-9.
966Despite the fact that Calvin holds that humans will never reach perfection in the present life, he holds to a high view of sanctification, as indicated in his later sermons on Galatians. He exhorts the believers to pray and repent before God until there would be 'nothing but purity left in us' (qu'il n'a ait plus que pureté en nous). See CO 50.620. Vingtseptieme Sermon. Galatians 4.11-14.
967COR 16.143, on Gal. 6.8. In a related discussion in Calvin's exposition of Gal. 3.17, Calvin treats a scholastic notion in a positive sense, namely, that good works can be seen as meritorious on the grounds of God's acceptance. Calvin asserts, however, that good works are accepted only because of the underlying acceptance of God, and because of God's covenant, not because of any merit inherent in human works. Nihil affirmo quod non concedant scholastici theologi. Neque enim opera docent intriuseca dignitate meritoria esse salutis, sed acceptatione Dei (ut loquuntur) et ratione pacti. COR enjoys Christian liberty. Yet, to demonstrate that Christians are not passive blocks of wood, they are to control their flesh by love and show the reality of their faith in the exercise of love in good works.968
5.4.2. Love of One's Neighbour Calvin's treatment of love towards one's neighbour is central to his understanding of good works.969 Calvin first enquires in his discussion why it is love toward one's neighbour, representing the second table of the Decalogue, which Paul refers to as fulfilling the whole law ('tota lex' as fulfilled by 'diliges proximum') instead of alluding to the superior first table of the Ten Commandments on love towards God.
In response, Calvin affirms that love toward one's neighbour proves whether the love of the Christian is real.970 Calvin further considers to whom one ought to show love and proceeds to identify all humans as our neighbours. Thus one ought to love one's enemies as well, for they, too, bear the image of God. Considering the practical side of Christian love, Calvin explains that love towards one's neighbour ought to be shown by acts of kindness, preferring all others to oneself,971 doing no harm to one's neighbour, but instead rendering every one their right and doing good to all as much as one can.972
The attention is now turned to practical examples of good works 5.4.3. Good Works in Practice Calvin likens good works to seed sowing. He affirms that seed sowing aptly illustrates acts of goodness, which, if one perseveres in them, will bear fruit in time.973 Three kinds of examples of good works are outlined in some detail by Calvin, namely, those of correcting others / bearing others' burdens, being faithful in one's calling, and providing financially for ministers.
968COR 16.125-126, on Gal. 5.13, COR 16.119-121, on Gal. 5.6. In the same way as the Jews were regulated by ceremonies, Christians are regulated by love. Nam sicuti in Christo Iesu fidem cum charitate commendat, ita ante Christi adventum requirebantur caeremoniae. COR 16.121, on Gal. 5.6.
969See also the importance of the command to love for Calvin's concept of good works, especially toward one's neighbour, in Catechismus Ecclesiae Genevensis (1545) in OS: 110.217-111.223.
970COR 16.126-127, on Gal. 5.14.
971Calvin rejects a view ascribed to the Sorbonnists (Sorbonici – a theological viewpoint associated with the university of Sorbonne) who argued the love of oneself to be primary based on the principle 'what is ruled is inferior to what rules' (regulatum inferius sit sua regula). Calvin affirms, by way of contrast that love towards others is primary. COR 16.127, on Gal. 5.14.
972Nam qui diligent, unicuique ius suum reddet, nemini erit iniurius aut nocebit, benefaciet quoad poterit omnibus. Quid autem aliud tota secunda tabula agit? … Praesertim vero imago Dei vinculum coniunctionis sacrosanctum esse debet. Itaque hic amici et inimici discrimen non est. Neque enim hominum improbitas ius naturae delere potest. Particular 'sicut teipsum' hoc valet : quemadmodum quisque affectu carnis propensus est ad se amandum, ita nobis commendari a Deo amorem erga proximos. COR 16.127, on Gal. 5.14. See also COR 16.127-128, on Gal. 5.14, COR 16.138-139, on Gal.
6.2 and COR 16.144, Gal. 6.9.
973COR 16.142, on Gal. 6.7 and COR 16.144, on Gal. 6.9.
In distinction to Luther who discusses the correction of one's neighbour (primarily) in the context of ministry, Calvin treats this issue in reference to Christian good works in general. Calvin maintains that one always ought to take care that correction of each other is done gently. One ought to begin by censuring oneself,974 and only then, bearing one's own weakness in mind, in a lenient way caution the other person. However, one should not overlook the others' faults but ease their burden by correcting them in a friendly way.975
Calvin also addresses the question of being faithful to one's calling, though much more briefly than Luther. Calvin admonishes that one ought not to draw comparisons between oneself and others and highlights that only praise based on faithfulness to one's own task is truly deserving of commendation. He elucidates
'"Let him lay aside all regard to others, examine just his own conscience and inquire what is his own work."' It is not what we gain by detracting from others, but what we have without any comparison, that is truly praiseworthy.'976
Further, Calvin, as well as Luther, bemoans the unfortunate situation that Christian ministers were frequently not remunerated properly, even leaving them at times with hardly any food.977 Turning to the question on how much the pastors should be provided with, he notes that the provision ought to be moderate though not luxurious. In response to an expected excuse, namely, the complaint of the people that they do not have sufficient means to provide for their pastors, Calvin responds that the appreciation of Christ and the gospel is indicated by the faithfulness of each person also in this issue.978
974Calvin, quoting a proverb, exhorts one to remember 'the wallet that hangs behind our own back' when correcting others. Tu quisquis es, inquit, qui censorem agis in alios, te quoque respice. Nihil enim difficilius quam nos adducere ad propriae infirmitatis recognitionem vel examen. Quum simus in notandis aliorum vitiis plus quam acuti, quod ad nostra 'non videmus maticae quod in tergo est', ut inquit ille. … Meminerimus ergo a nobis incipere, quoties agenda est de vitiis censura, ut infimitatis [sic] nostrae memores erga alios simus moderati. COR 16.137-138, on Gal. 6.1.
975Portare autem onera iubet, non ut indulgentia aut dissimulatione foveamus mala, quibus premuntur fratres, sed potius ut illos exoneremus. COR 16.138, on Gal. 6.2.
976Sed omisso aliorum respectu suam unius conscientiam excutiat, et quale sit suum opus consideret. Ea demum est vera laus, non quam aliis detrahendo nobis conciliamus, sed quam habemus sine comparatione. COR 16.129, on Gal. 6.4. See the whole passage in COR 16.129-130, on Gal. 6.4.
977Calvin states rather stringently on the meagre provision often given for evangelical ministers, 'Deinde hic astus est Satanae, alimentis fraudare pios ministros, ut Ecclesia talibus destituatur.' COR 16.141, on Gal. 6.7. See also COR 16.141-142, on Gal. 6.6.
978COR 16.141-142, on Gal. 6.6-7.
Calvin treats the theme of ministry frequently within his commentary. It seems fully justified that Feld has identified it as one of the significant themes of Calvin's
Galatians.979 Most of Calvin's comment on ministry is in the form of brief exhortation on various unrelated aspects of ministry instead of being a systematic treatise on the subject.980 Calvin's treatment of the concept is addressed in five parts, first on the calling to and honour of the position of ministry, second, on the true and false gospel in ministry, third, on the task of ministry, fourth, on restoring the fallen and fifth, on popularity in ministry.
5.5.1. Calling to and Honour of the Position of Ministry Calvin, as well as Luther, affirms in his comment on Gal. 1.1 that the calling to gospel ministry can come either directly from God (immediate ab ipso Domino), which was the case in the calling of the apostles, or through a human instrument
(per hominem). Calvin, in distinction to Luther, however, affirms that the ordinary call coming through a human instrument originates in the vote of the people rather than in a prince's choice.981
There are several occasions where Calvin affirms the honour of the position of gospel ministry. Commenting on Gal. 4.19, Calvin notes how remarkable it is that God's task, that of forming Christ in their hearers, is performed through human agents, the ministers. On this account, their work deserves praise.
However, in their own person, without their office and without the Holy Spirit working through them, the ministers are nothing.982 Calvin asserts the honour of ministry in the fact that ministers perform a task similar to that of angels in being
God's messengers and in spreading 'the most excellent of all blessings', (bonum omnium longe excellentissimum) the doctrine of eternal salvation.983 In response, the congregation ought not only to honour, but also to love their minister, a love
979See Feld 1992: xxix.
980Much of Calvin's comment relating to ministry is exegetical in nature, dealing with his discussion on Paul's ministry as addressed in Galatians. Calvin's theological comment relating to ministry tends to be brief and thus does not always form a clear overall picture of the subject. Nevertheless, his exposition gives sufficient material for the aspects of ministry outlined above.
981Paulus ipse oppidatim cum Barnaba suffragiis presbyteros creabat. … Atque ista est ordinaria ratio eligendi Pastores. COR 16.12, on Gal. 1.1. For more detail on Calvin's discussion on a calling to ministry per hominem in distinction to non per hominem / immediate ab ipso Domino, see COR 16.12982Et hic insignis est locus de efficacia ministerii. Proprium quidem Dei est spiritualiter gignere et parere.
Sed quia instrumentis ad id utitur, ministro et praedicatione, quod suum est, illis adscribit, propterea quod cum hominis opera coniungit Spiritus sui virtutem. Semper retineamus illam distinctionem, quod quum
Deo minister opponitur, nihil est ac nihil potest, sed organum est inutile. Caeterum quia efficaciter Spiritus sanctus per ipsum operatur, transfertur etiam ad ipsum laus et titulus agendi. COR 16.104, on 983COR 16.101, on Gal. 4.14. While recognising the honour of their work, the ministers should, following the example of Paul, admit their weakness. COR 16.101, on Gal. 4.14. which in turn encourages a positive attitude towards the gospel.984 Accordingly,
Calvin affirms that wherever God's grace is truly perceived in ministry, one should submit to it, not worshiping men, but honouring God, the Giver of the gifts.985
Calvin does not extend this kind of honour to any kind of ministry, however.
Addressing the papists who maintain their authority on account of their position, he affirms that they ought first hold to the pure Word before any honour is due to them.986
5.5.2. True vs. False Gospel in Ministry In his discussion of Gal. 1.7-9 Calvin contrasts true gospel ministry with a false one. The latter is primarily ascribed to papists. Calvin affirms that true gospel ministry purely exhibits Christ while a false one has no clarity regarding the issue of justification.987 Accordingly, Calvin rejects the claim of the papists that Paul only forbids other gospels, not all additions to the Word of God. By way of contrast,
Calvin affirms that the gospel is sufficiently and clearly expounded by Paul.988 That is why it ought to be presented without any additions, and with certainty and conviction.989 Similarly, all gospel ministry, following Paul's example, ought to remain in subjection to God's Word, and be founded on pure knowledge in contrast to the implicit trust required in the papacy. 990
984Non satis est exhiberi Pastoribus reverentiam, nisi etiam animos. Haec enim duo sunt necessaria, quia alioqui suavis non erit doctrinae gustus. COR 16.102, on Gal. 4.15.
985COR 16.29, on Gal. 1.24 and COR 16.40-41, on Gal. 2.9.
986Caeterum frustra hoc praetextu superbiunt Papistae. Nam quum sint manifesti Christi hostes, quam ridiculum est arripere plumas servorum Christi, quibus sese venditent? Ergo qui volunt pro Angelis coli, officium faciant Angelorum. Qui instar Christi audiri volunt, purum eius verbum fideliter nobis afferent.
COR 16.101, on Gal. 4.14.
987Neque enim stat Christus, et Euangelii doctrina corruit, ubi alio transfertur laus hominis iustificandi et conscientiis laqueus induitur. Semper enim videndum, quae sint in Euangelio praecipua. Heac qui oppugnat, destructor est Euangelii. COR 16.18, on Gal. 1.7.
988Puerile igitur est Papistarum subterfugium, quum sic Pauli verba eludunt ... Deinde non prohiberi, quin aliquid addatur, sed tantum alia euangelia damnari. Nam Pauli quale ferit, quoad nostra scire interest, non obscure ex eius scriptis colligimus. COR 16.20, on Gal. 1.9. Calvin highlights the importance of purity in doctrine in his Deux congrégations. He maintains that while Christian concord is important, the whole gospel needs to be retained as pure, because even one error corrupts the whole. Quand donc il est question de nourrir concorde et union entre nous, il nous faut avoir ce que Dieu approuve, c'est à scavoir d'estre humbles et d'obeir à sa Parole. ... Car nous devons bien poiser ce mot, que ce n'est pas assez d'avoir l'Evangile en confus et une portion: mais il nous le faut avoir entier, ou autrement il est corrompu. DC 6,7 (13-14, 15).
989COR 16.20, on Gal. 1.9.
990Quid enim profuerit dare nomen Euangelio et nescire, quid sibi velit? Apud Papistas quidem id forte sufficeret, ubi valed fides implicita. Sed apud Christianos nulla est fides, ubi nulla est cognitio. ... Non alios sibi hoc modo subiicit, sed omnes secum, ut par est, cogit in ordinem, ut verbo Dei sint subiecti.
COR 16.19, on Gal. 1.8.
5.5.3. Task of Ministry Calvin's comment on the task of ministry relates to 1) the relationship of ministry to the work of the Holy Spirit, 2) the issue of opposing false teachers, 3) God's gifts in ministry, 4) preaching and 5) other issues.
The minister's task is highly honoured by God (as noted above) because ministers participate, as God's agents, in the task of forming Christ in their hearers, an aspect of Calvin's commentary drawn attention to also by Feld.991
Calvin elucidates Paul's comment on the forming of Christ in people through his ministry (donec formetur [in vobis Christus]; Gal. 4.19),
'True, it is the work of God that we are begotten and born; but because He employs a minister and preaching as His instruments for that purpose, He ascribes to them what is His, so joining the power of His Spirit with the activity of man.'992
Calvin is careful to explain, however, that it is God's Spirit, who makes the ministry efficacious. This is also connected to a related concept of God's
Spirit employing humans as His agents. When the Spirit gives grace and gifts for the task of ministry, one ought to be careful to glorify God the Giver of the gifts rather than honour the humans employed as agents.993
Calvin, in a rather interesting passage, explains Paul's opposition to false teachers in relation to the concept of the glory of God in relation to human affairs. Referring to Paul's imprecation directed at false teachers ('Utinam et abscindantur, qui vos conturbant'; Gal. 5.12) Calvin explains the kind of zeal that 'every true pastor of the church' will burn with. Calvin points out that the desire to promote the glory of God and the welfare of the Church ought to supercede the desire for the salvation of the individual false teacher, who threatens the flock of 'Believers, earnestly intent on promoting the glory of God, forget men and the world and would rather that the whole world should perish than that any part of God's glory should be lost. … It is a cruel mercy that prefers one man to the whole Church. On one side I see the flock of God in danger;
991Feld states, 'Der Euangelii minister ist organum Gottes: durch ihn ist der Geist Gottes efficaciter tätig.
Er vollzieht als instrumentum das Wirken Gottes, weil Gott in der Predigt die Kraft seines Geistes mit dem Werk des Menschen vorbindet.' Emphasis in the original. See Feld 1992 : xxix.
992Proprium quidem Dei est spiritualiter gignere et parere. Sed quia instrumentis ad id utitur, ministro et praedicatione, quod suum est, illis adscribit, propterea quod cum hominis opear coniungit Spiritus sui virtutem. COR 16.104, on Gal. 4.19.
993See COR 16.41, on Gal. 2.9 and COR 16.29, on Gal. 1.22-24. Similarly, Calvin cautions in his sermon on Ephesians that Scripture ought to be handled with reverence and care so that the interpretation may truly be in step with the Spirit's work. It appears evident that this applies especially to ministers. Car là nous avons un advertisement pour nous tenir en bride, à fin que nous soyons vrayement disciples de
Dieu, nous deffians de nous-mesmes, et que nous n'allions point cercher ciq pieds en un mouton (comme on dit) mais que nous traittions l'Escriture saincte en telle reverence, que Dieu nous conduise en la vraye intelligence d'icelle par son sainct Esprit. CO 51.773, Quarantedeuxieme sermon, on Eph. 5.31-33. See also Zachman 2003: 481-507 for further discussion on Calvin's theology connected with preaching. on the other I see a wolf on the attack, spurred on by Satan. Ought not care for the Church to swallow up all my thoughts so that I desire to purchase its salvation with the destruction of the wolf? And yet I would not wish that any should perish like this…'994
Calvin also comments on some aspects of preaching. The first relates to the content of preaching. He affirms that in one's preaching one ought to focus on the cross of Christ and paint Christ crucified so clearly that there is no need for pictures in the churches.995 As with Luther, the second point is an exhortation for ministers to accommodate their style to one's hearers so that the people are capable of understanding what the minister has to say.
Other themes addressed by Calvin on ministry include his stress on a holy zeal and jealousy which all pastors ought to display in their work.996
Furthermore, one of Calvin's last comments in the epistle exhorts ministers to be orderly and habitual, following the good pattern of Paul, a passage which makes one think of Calvin's own well disciplined lifestyle.997
5.5.4. Gentleness in Restoring the Fallen Calvin's comment on Gal. 4.12 and 4.20 aptly represents Calvin's argument on the appropriate form of correction which the minister ought to practice. Calvin affirms that one ought not to have primary regard for mere justice in correcting the lapsed but rather do all one can to win the fallen person back to God. Calvin affirms,
'It is the part of a wise pastor to consider, not what those who have erred may justly deserve, but how he can call them back to the way. He must
994Ita fit, ut in gloriam Dei promovendam intenti fideles mundi et hominum obliviscantur, ideoque malint totum mundum interire quam decedere aliquid gloriae Dei. … Crudelis enim misericordia, quae hominem unum toti Ecclesiae praefert. Video ab una parte gregem Domini, qui periclitatur, video eregione lupum Satanae instinctu grassantem. An non Ecclesiae cura sic absorbere totam meam cogitationem debet, ut eius salutem lupi exitio redimi cupiam? Neque tamen hoc modo quenquam velim perditum. Sed Eccesiae amor et solicitude me rapit quasi in ecstasin, ut nihil aliud curem. Nemo igitur verus erit Ecclesiae Pastor, qui non simili zelo ardeat.' COR 16.124, on Gal. 5.12. For the whole discussion, see COR 16.124-125, on Gal. 5.12.
995COR 16.60-61, on Gal 3.1. One may see a reference here to Calvin's negative relation to images in churches. See CO 1.384-393 for the larger context of Calvin's discussion on images. It is interesting to note that Calvin has added material on the commandment forbidding images in the successive editions of Institutes, adding sections both for the 1543-45 and the 1550-54 editions. Finally, in 1559, Calvin moved the lengthy discussion from its place as the exposition of the second commandment to form a separate chapter of its own in Institutio, book 1, chapter 11, thus leaving the exposition of the second commandment much shorter and more compact in the 1559 edition. See CO 1.LI and CO 1.384-393.
996COR 16.103, on Gal. 4.17-18.
997Nomen regulae posuit ad exprimendum certum et perpetuum tenorem, cui insistere debent omnis pii Euangelii ministri. Quemadmodum enim architecti, quae extruunt aedificia, ad normam exigent, ut singulae partes iusta proportione inter se ac symmetria cohaereant, ita canonem assignat Verbi ministries, quo rite et ordine Ecclesiam aedificent. COR 16.149, on Gal. 6.15. charge them in season and out of season, but with all gentleness and patience, as he [Paul] elsewhere commands.'998
One must come to the level of the fallen, and to demonstrate gentleness, in accordance with the proverb, 'to be loved, you must be lovable' (Ut ameris, amabilis esto).999
5.5.5. Popularity in Ministry In parallel to Luther's discussion on κενοδοξία (vainglory), Calvin also treats the issue of popularity in ministry.
Calvin affirms that gospel ministers ought not to attempt to gain honour from humans. True ministers must on the one hand be strong enough to 'despise the favour of men' while on the other it is important not to cause offence to the weak.1000 False apostles, by way of contrast, strive after popularity, applause and their own ease. Calvin gives an example of these kind of apostles by affirming the existence of ministers who asked the people to honour the Roman papacy only for the sake of protecting themselves. In reality, these ministers loved their own advantage and the smell of the kitchen rather than the Roman church.1001 The true apostle, by way of contrast, endeavours to remain faithful to Christ and strives to edify the church.1002
According to this study the concepts discussed above were clearly the most important in Calvin's Galatians. There are some other notions as well, however, which Calvin treats more briefly. Six of these are succinctly addressed here, including Calvin's view on God's providence, the scandal of the cross / suffering as 998Hoc prudentis est Pastoris, non respicere, quid mereantur, qui errarunt, sed quid conveniat ipsis in viam revocandis. Itaque arguere debet opportune, importune, sed cum omni lenitate et patientia, quemadmodum alibi praecipit. COR 16.99, on Gal. 4.12. See also COR 16.104, on Gal. 4.20. Calvin adds the name Paul explicitly in the edition of Galatians 1556. See COR 16.99, note 't-u'.
999Atque hic rursum officii sui admonentur Pastores, ut quoad possunt, accedant ad populum seque conforment (ut loquuntur) eorum ingeniis, quibuscum agunt, si velint illos habere morigeros. Valet enim simper illud: 'Ut ameris, amabilis esto.' COR 16.100, on Gal. 4.12.
1000Sec hinc colligenda est generalis illa doctrina, quam dixi: Quicumque volunt fideliter Christo servire, eos debere fortiter contemnere hominum gratiam. ... Nostrum igitur est quasvis offensas non reformidare, modo tamen infirmos a Christo non alienemus. COR 16.22, on Gal. 1.10.
1001Calvin affirms that these ministers, while apparently honouring the papacy, cared in fact as little for the decisions of the Roman see as they did for the braying of an ass. Loquor de aulicis apostolis et quicunque nidorem culinarum sequuntur. Tanquam ex tripode pronuntiabunt sanctae Romanae ecclesiae reverenter observanda esse statute. Quid ipsi interim? Nihilo pluris faciunt omnia Romanae sedis oracula quam asini ruditum. COR 16.146, on Gal. 6.13. See the larger context of the discussion in COR 16.145146, on on Gal. 6.12-13.
1002COR 16.145-146, on Gal. 6.12-13. a Christian, the church, the Lord's Supper, human depravity and interpretation of Scripture. Some aspects of Luther's comment on the corresponding minor themes of God's providence, human depravity and interpretation of Scripture in his Galatians have been briefly noted here in a footnote to facilitate comparison (as these three were not treated in section 4.7 above).
Some thought was given to including a consideration of the theme of edification in this section,1003 which T. D. Parker considers as central in Calvin's commentary. However, most of what Parker appears to include under the heading of edification, has been sufficiently treated in the sections above.1004
5.6.1. Predestination Calvin does not treat predestination in much detail in his commentary. It is noteworthy, however, that he alludes to the theme clearly more frequently than
Luther.1005 Calvin's fullest treatment of God's providence (on Gal. 1.15) includes an interesting three step description, according to which the first step is the 'eternal predestination of God' (aeternam Dei praedestinationem), followed by the 'destination from the womb' (designationem ab utero), succeeded by 'calling'
(vocatio), 'the effect and accomplishment of both' (effectus et complementum utriusque).1006 Thus, for instance, 1) Paul had been predestined from eternity, and 2) his destination as a preacher to the Gentiles was known to God already at his birth, but 3) this became a living reality to Paul only at his calling on the road of 1003Calvin typically follows his exegetical comment with a brief application to either doctrinal themes or practical issues in Christian life. (This differs from Luther, who usually treats a certain issue in some detail in an extended, coherent discussion.) Some of the applications Calvin makes could have appropriately been included under the heading of edification. For some examples, see Calvin's comment on COR 16.16, on Gal. 1.5 (exhortation on thankfulness to God for his mercy), COR 16.29, on Gal. 1.20
(exhortation on swearing) and COR 16.46, on Gal. 2.14 (instruction regarding public rebuke of public sin in church).
1004Parker defines the theme of edification as follows, 'What Calvin is interested in as the goal of Bible study is the edification of Christians, 'learning to place our trust in God and to walk in the fear of Him,' through Jesus Christ, who, as the end of the law and essence of the gospel, is the only right object of a Christian's faith.' See Parker 1963: 68-69.
1005For Calvin's references to the theme of predestination, see COR 16.16, on Gal. 1.4, COR 16.25-26, on Gal. 1.15, COR 16.73-74, on Gal. 3.16, COR 16.92, Gal. 4.4 and COR 16.107, on Gal. 4.23. In the passages above, the closely related themes of God's providence, predestination and election have all been included together. Luther does not appear to address the issues of election and predestination in a significant way in his Galatians, apart from cursory remarks on Gal. 1.15. There Luther maintains that predestination removes the possibility of all human merit. All physical and spiritual gifts and every good deed that one ever does, come to the Christian by God's predestination and grace before one's birth. This was the reason underlying Paul's knowledge of the gospel and his appointment to ministry. WA
40a.139.30-140.24, on Gal. 1.15.
1006Sed interdum Scriptura solet ponere istos tres gradus: aeternam Dei praedestinationem, designationem ab utero et vocationem, qua est effectus et complementum utriusque. COR 16.25, on Gal. 1.15. See the whole exposition of the verse in COR 16.25-26, on Gal. 1.15.
1007COR 16.26, on Gal. 1.15.
It is important to bear in mind that for Calvin, as for Luther, the theme of God's predestination does not appear in a negative light in the commentary, which differs significantly from the commonly held repulsion against Calvin's doctrine of predestination in some modern literature.1008 The conclusion
Calvin draws from the doctrine of predestination is that it excludes the possibility of all human merit.1009 Thus the Israelites, chosen from their birth on the basis of physical ancestry in the time of the Old Testament, were not called because of their own worthiness, but because of God's mercy. Similarly, the salvation and faith of Gentile believers, whose calling involves no physical ancestry, depends on God's free election, not on their good works.1010
5.6.2. Scandal of the Cross and Suffering as a Christian There is no such explicit and consistent linking of the notions of the scandal of the cross and the theme of suffering as a Christian in Calvin's commentary as there is in Luther. Calvin affirms the scandal of the cross to be, in the eyes of the world, that Christ takes our sins, and becomes a sinner in our stead.1011 When discussing persecution, Calvin maintains that there is nothing which ought so to alarm
Christians as the fact that the gospel, God's adoption, promise and grace are despised and persecuted.1012 Calvin exhorts believers to fortitude in persecutions1013 and reminds that one can find consolation in God's promises of peace and mercy to 1008For instance, Cameron states, 'According to Calvin, purely of his own pleasure God has predestined us to either salvation or damnation. In terms of the nature of perversion, Calvin's doctrine is ingenious in terms of the implication it has for thinking about authority. Not only does it create a void by presenting a God indifferent to human affairs, but who, on the contrary, chooses to arbitrarily save some of His unworthy subjects.' Cameron 2003: 31. For studies with more detail and depth on Luther's doctrine of predestination see e.g. Brosche 1978. For a treatment of Calvin's doctrine on God's providence as well as for background information on Augustinian and Thomistic doctrines on predestination, see Davies
1009Calvin links the doctrines of election, calling and justification together in his comment on the phrase 'Gratia estis salvati' (Eph 2.8) in his commentary on Ephesians. Est quasi conclusio superiorum. Ideo enim et de electione, et de vocatione gratuita disseruit, ut ad hanc summam perveniret, eos sola fide salutem consequutos esse. Primum ergo salutem Ephesiorum asserit Dei unius esse opus, et quidem gratuitum. Eos vero hanc gratiam fide amplexos. Hic enim considerandus est Deus: inde homines. Deum quidquam nobis debere negat. Est igitur mera gratia, non merces aut retributio, quod salvat. Nunc quaeritur, quomodo salutem ex manu Dei sibi oblatam percipiant homines. Respondet, fide. Hinc concludit, nihil igitur hic esse nostrum. Nam si ex parte Dei est sola gratia : nos autem nihil praeter fidem afferimus, quae nos spoliat omni laude: sequitur, non esse ex nobis. CO 51.165, on Gal. 2.8.
1010Calvin refers to the Jews who claimed that it was their merit which set them apart from other nations and rebuts their view by ascribing their election to God's calling alone, 'Iactabunt quidem id se consequutos esse suo merito. Verum Scriptura ex adverso reclamat totum e Dei vocatione pendere.' See
COR 16.73, on Gal. 3.16. See also COR 16.25-26, on Gal. 1.15 and COR 16.73-74, on Gal. 3.16.
1011COR 16.70-71, on Gal. 3.13.
1012COR 16.111-113, on Gal. 4.29.
1013COR 16.4, Christophoro Duci Wirt. Calvin affirms that believers should make no compromises to please others even in the face of persecution; instead, they should strictly and fully hold to the pure doctrine of the gospel. COR 16.123-124, on Gal. 5.11. his own and in the fact that 'Ishmael' will no longer persecute 'Isaac' in the world to come.1014
There are two passages, however, where Calvin, at least to some extent, links the scandal of the cross and Christian suffering, namely, his comment on Gal. 5.11 and Gal. 6.17. Calvin affirms that a false gospel meets with the favour of the world, while the true gospel, upholding the offence of the cross (scandalum crucis), invites persecution.1015 Further, Calvin identifies the stigmata of Paul as his physical sufferings for the sake of the gospel (as does Luther) and asserts that in the same way Christians partake of Christ's cross and its shame.1016
Despite the brevity of Calvin's comments on the church in his commentary, there are several aspects of Calvin's thinking on the church which he outlines clearly.
Commenting on Gal. 1.2, Calvin identifies the external marks of a church as professing Christianity and worshipping one God, having a form of ministry of the gospel and maintaining the sacraments. Also, the fact that the Galatian church is still called a church by Paul indicates that churches are not perfect although what is wrong in them needs to be condemned. The notion of the church as a communion of believers in contrast to a conception of church as an institution, seems reflected in Calvin's assertion that Paul, if he were there in Calvin's day, would not identify the church as a building, but instead perceive a scattered church.1017 Accordingly, in Calvin's exposition of Gal. 4.26-27, he maintains that believers are strangers and pilgrims in this world, and they belong to the true church, having the heavenly
Jerusalem above as their mother, chosen on the grounds of grace and faith, by the Spirit. Calvin regards the church as essential to salvation, however. He asserts that there is no salvation outside of the church, because the church is the instrument, chosen by God to bring up believers from childhood to maturity.1018
1014COR 16.149, on Gal. 6.16 and COR 16.113, on Gal. 4.30. Calvin affirms here that the persecution of the Epicureans is even more distressing than that of the papists. Calvin probably refers to the Genevan party of the Libertines who constantly opposed him. See section 2.1.2 for further detail on Calvin and the 1015COR 16.123-124, on Gal. 5.11.
1016Nam sicut militiae terrenae sunt sua decora, quibus militum virtutem imperatores insigniunt, ita dux noster Christus suis insignibus ornate, quorum egregia opera usus est, ut inter alios emineant conspicui.
Sed multum haec differunt ab illis prioribus. Resepiunt enim crucem. Ideo sunt igniminiosa coram mundo. COR 16.150, on Gal. 6.17.
1017Respondeo, quum illic esset professio Christianismi, quum esset unius Dei invocatio, sacramentorum usus et qualecunque ministerium, superfuisse adhuc Ecclesiae insignia. Non igitur semper ea extat in Ecclesiis puritas, quae desiderari possit. ... Si Paulus hodie viveret, miseras illic Ecclesiae ruinas et horrendam dissipationem agnosceret, nullum aedificium. COR 16.14, on Gal. 1.2.
1018COR 16.110-111, on Gal. 4.26-27. This does not, however, apply to the Roman church who appeal for the Protestants to return to them, because, Calvin affirms, they have adulterated the true meaning of a church. See COR 16.110-111, on Gal. 4.26.
5.6.4. Lord's Supper and the Sacraments Calvin refers directly to the Lord's Supper only twice, while he addresses the subject of the sacraments in general on a few more occasions. The content of the general references to sacraments is briefly outlined here, too, as they also apply to the issue of the Lord's Supper.
Calvin affirms that sacraments are aids to faith (fidei adminicula),1019 and that their purpose is to preserve faith.1020 Further, God's grace is present in the sacraments. However, God's grace is a benefit only to those who recognise their true meaning while the wicked derive no benefit from them. In this way the true meaning of the sacrament is preserved, namely, that God's grace is truly present in the sacrament, while God's divine action is not confused with the symbol.1021 Accordingly, despite the reality of God's grace being present, not all receive its benefit.1022 In baptism and in the Lord's Supper humans do nothing, but passively receive God's grace. At the same time, God's grace is received by faith in Christ, and not by virtue of the act itself (opus operatum) as the Catholics maintained. Calvin considers circumcision as the sacrament of the Old Testament, replaced by baptism and Lord's Supper in the New Testament. However, sacraments ought not to be confused into the issue of obtaining righteousness. It is outside of justification that sacraments are consistent with God's promise. Calvin further affirms that the use of the Lord's Supper and baptism ought to be perpetual, according to the will of Christ.1023
On the specific controversy over the Lord's Supper, Calvin's comment is very brief. He bemoans the fact that many, having seen significant representatives of the faith taking opposite sides, were led astray by the controversy over Christ's bodily presence in the sacrament.1024 Calvin relates to the controversy in a different manner than does Luther. Luther highlights the importance of strict purity in doctrine and warns of making any compromise with the Sacramentarians
(Sacramentarii).1025 Calvin's brief statement, on the other hand, appears to mirror the attitude according to which the variant understanding on the Lord's Supper ought not to have become a matter to divide the church, a view ascribed by Luther
1019Interim tamen non excludit nostra sacramenta, quae fidei adminicula sunt, sed breviter confirmat, quod attigerat de spirituali Dei cultu. COR 16.119, on Gal. 5.6.
1020COR 16.74-75, on Gal. 3.17.
1021Hoc modo neque ad signum trasfertur, quod proprium Dei est, et tamen sacramentis vis sua constat, ne pro inanibus et frigidis spectaculis habeantur. COR 16.87, on Gal. 3.27. See the whole discussion in COR 16.86-87, on Gal. 3.27.
1022COR 16.86-87, on Gal. 3.27.
1023See COR 16.75, on Gal. 3.17 and COR 16.117-118, on Gal. 5.3.
1024Dici vix potest, quam multos retardaverit ab Euangelio, quam multorum fidem concusserit infausta illa de Christi corpore digladiatio, eo quod primariae authoritatis viros cernebant adeo hostiliter pugnare de quaestione maxima. COR 16.32, on Gal. 2.2.
1025See section 4.7.4. for further discussion and references. to Sacramentarians.1026 Calvin's brief comment on Gal. 5.15 seems to lend some further support to this view. The whole of Calvin's statement is quoted below,
'Would that we always remembered, when the devil tempts us to disputes, that the disagreement of members within the Church can lead to nothing but the ruin and consumption of the whole body. How unhappy, how mad it is, that we who are members of the same body should voluntarily conspire together for mutual destruction!'1027
5.6.5. Human Depravity Calvin discusses the theme of human depravity in some detail on two occasions in his commentary.1028 Both times Calvin's treatment of human depravity is closely tied with his discussion on justification. The depth of human depravity indicates the absolute necessity for humans of Christ's help in bringing about anything good. In his exposition of Gal. 1.4, Calvin affirms that the whole world has 'nothing but sin and wickedness'.1029 Further, unless Christ's grace renews humans, Calvin repeats even more strongly that there is 'nothing in us but unmixed wickedness'.1030 The purpose for which Christ died, was therefore to redeem humans from their sin and separate them from the world.1031
1026See WA 40b.45.23-46.28, on Gal. 5.9.
1027Utinam istud simper occurreret, quoties diabolus nos ad contentiones solicitat, ex intestines scilicet membrorum dissidiis non posse aliud provenire quam totius corporis exitium et consumptionem. Quam miserum autem ac insanum est sponte nos, qui eiusdem sumus corporis membra, in mutuam perniciem conspirare? COR 16.128, on Gal. 5.15. However, Calvin makes no direct reference to the issue of the Lord's Supper in this instance and therefore his statement could also be seen to refer to local disputes.
Due to the fact that Calvin does not elucidate his statements on the Lord's Supper in his Galatians any further, one should not draw any far-reaching conclusions on the basis of his commentary in one direction or the other.
1028Luther's view on human depravity is similar to Calvin's, but he does not appear to stress it as strongly as does Calvin in his Galatians. One of the most characteristic ways of Luther to describe human sinfulness is in the context of the simul iustus et peccator concept. See e.g. WA 40a.194.14-198.17, on Gal. 2.11 and WA 40a.312.14-313.23 on Gal. 3.1. In his statements on human depravity, Luther maintains the complete depravity of human reason and spiritual endowments (spiritualia) in all issues pertaining to salvation. Natural endowments (naturalia) are sound, but only in the physical realm such as in governing society and in building a house. Thus, similarly to Calvin, Luther maintains that due to human incapacity, Christ took the initiative to save humans. WA 40a.293.18-294.30, on Gal. 2.20.
Further, human nature, or 'the old man' (Luther quotes Paul for this term - Paulus vocare solet Veterem hominem), is evil from birth. This old nature is put off in baptism where humans are born again, receive
Christ and are regenerated so that new holy impulses come into being. WA 40a.540.17-541.25, on Gal.
3.27. Nevertheless, the corrupt human flesh remains even in believers and resists the work of the Holy Spirit. In this struggle, however, the Spirit holds the upper hand. Also, God accounts the believers as righteous, despite their remaining sin, through Christ's imputed righteousness (simul iustus et peccator).
WA 40b.83.34-86.19, on Gal. 5.16. See section 4.2.3. for further discussion.
1029Ita qui ex mundo nati sunt, nihil habent praeter peccatum et malitiam, non creatione, sed corruptione.
COR 16.15, on Gal. 1.4.
1030Testatru enim extra renovationem, quae fit Christi gratia, nihil esse in nobis nisi meram nequitiam.
COR 16.16, on Gal. 1.4.
1031See COR 16.15, on Gal. 1.4.
Calvin's second treatment of human depravity is briefer. In his comment on Gal. 2.17, Calvin affirms that the Jews mistakenly believed that they were holy above other nations, and this apart from Christ. Instead, Calvin indicates that they share human sin and pollution in the same manner as the Gentiles and that is why for them, too, the only way to righteousness is through the grace of 5.6.6. Interpretation of Scripture
Calvin briefly addresses the issue of the interpretation of Scripture on two occasions.1033 First, commenting on Gal. 1.8, Calvin upholds the primacy of Scripture over human authority. He affirms that implicit faith in the interpretation of the church is not sufficient for the Christian, implying that every believer ought to study the Scripture for themselves and to submit to its authority.1034 Calvin further specifies, expounding Gal. 4.22, that the true (verum), literal (literalis) or natural
1032See COR 16.52-53, on Gal. 2.17 and 2.18.
1033Luther does not treat the interpretation of Scripture in the commentary in any longer expositions.
However, there are some brief allusions to the concept.
Neither the church nor the pope ought to have authority over the interpretation Scripture. Instead, Scripture itself has the primary authority. WA 40a.119.21-120.25, on Gal. 1.9. The authority of Scripture is set against papal interpretation on the one hand, which seeks to affirm righteousness by works and the Anabaptist interpretation on the other, which claims that it is they who have found the true spiritual meaning of the Scriptures. Compare WA 40a.362.28-363.27, 364.29365.17, on Gal. 3.6 and WA 40b.96.17-97.16, on Gal. 5.17 with WA 40a.323.20-30, on Gal. 3.1 and WA
40a.627.30-628.20, on Gal. 4.12.
Scripture can only be understood correctly through the help of the Holy Spirit. WA 40a.449.33-450.14, on Gal. 3.13, WA 40a.423.20-31, on Gal. 3.11. The right way of interpreting the Scripture is to leave one's preconceived ideas behind and to pay careful attention to the text itself and its preceding and consequent context. WA 40b.36.24-37.15, on Gal. 5.6. Accordingly, the plain literal meaning of the text is preferred and the fourfold sense of Scripture of mediaeval scholasticism is rejected, a point which is in agreement with Calvin. (According to the fourfold sense of Scripture,
Jerusalem, for example, is literally Jerusalem as the earthly city, tropologically a pure conscience, allegorically the church militant on earth and anagogically the church triumphant in heaven). The fourfold sense of Scripture, Luther asserts, obscures the true meaning of Scripture so that consciences are deprived of the certainty they need. Nevertheless, and this is where Luther deviates from Calvin, Luther admits that allegories may be used where appropriate, such as when Paul used the allegory relating to Hagar and Ishmael, the earthly and the heavenly Jerusalem. However, utilising the allegorical interpretation of Scripture is dangerous if one does not know Christian doctrine perfectly. Compare WA
40a.652.30-653.20, on Gal. 4.21 with WA 40a.662.12-28, on Gal. 4.26. It is further important in Luther's view that Christ has authority over all Scripture. Therefore, when one is challenged, it is important to stay with Christ, the King of Scripture, against those scriptural passages, which apparently assert righteousness of works. WA 40a.458.19-459.24, on Gal. 3.14. See also WA 40a.414.24-418.11, on Gal.
3.10. For a fuller treatment of Luther's approach to allegories in his 1531/35 commentary on Galatians, see e.g. Maschke 1997: 28-29.
1034Calvin affirms that 'there is no faith where there is no knowledge'. Apud Papistas quidem id forte sufficeret, ubi valed fides implicita. Sed apud Christianos nulla est fides, ubi nulla est cognitio. ... Non alios sibi hoc modo subiicit, sed omnes secum, ut par est, cogit in ordinem, ut verbo Dei sint subiecti.
COR 16.19, on Gal. 1.8. and obvious (germanus et simplex) meaning of Scripture ought to be preferred.1035
Calvin rejects the method of allegorical interpretation, which he affirms to be Satan's strategy to divert the readers of Scripture from its pure meaning.
1035Sciamus ergo eum sse verum Scripturae sensum, qui germanus est ac simplex, eumque amplectamur et mordicus teneamus. COR 16.107, on Gal. 4.22. See the whole discussion on the passage in COR
16.106-107, on Gal. 4.22.