4. Substantial Concepts in Luther's Commentary on In preparation for this section, two principal approaches were considered. One would have been to choose one uniting perspective from which to look at Luther's commentary, which has been the method in Mannermaa's and Taube's works, for instance.524 However, a second type of approach, represented by Bornkamm, for example, in which the major concepts are presented each in turn instead of choosing one of them as primary, was chosen for primarily three reasons.525 First, in the process of the research it appeared difficult to find any one distinct overarching perspective.526 Second, choosing one primary perspective would have led to the neglect of other important themes in the commentaries. Third, it was discovered that presenting the substantial themes each in turn both appears to give a balanced picture of what is important in Luther's commentary and, what is also important in view of this research, this approach facilitates comparison between Luther's and The analysis of substantial concepts in Luther's Galatians is begun with a brief introduction on previous research.
524Mannermaa looks at Luther's Galatians in light of the concept of union with Christ (Mannermaa 1979) and Taube in light of the relationship of God to one's individual person, Gott und Das Ich (Taube 1996).
525Bornkamm, who explicitly sets out to present Luther's interpretation of various concepts within his commentaries on Galatians of 1519 and 1531/35 has also identified several clearly differing ideas, including those of ministry, justification, the law and the believer's personal tribulation (Anfechtung) instead of choosing just one perspective from which to look at the whole commentary. See Bornkamm's disposition in Bornkamm 1963: x-xv.
526Many of the ideas of Luther's commentary could be presented from the point of view of the law gospel distinction / contrast, for instance. Another general concern of Luther's appears to be the application and impact of various doctrines to the individual person, an aspect highlighted in Taube's work Gott und das
Ich. See Taube 1996. While explaining everything else in Luther's commentary from the point of view of these themes, for instance, could have been original, much argumentation would have had to be used in an attempt to prove how all other concepts connect to the one chosen central theme. The approach would very easily have become artificial and not have done full justice to the scope and variety of themes present in Luther's Galatians. Further, it probably would have made the comparison with Calvin's
Galatians less accurate. Therefore, it seemed better to present the key concepts each in turn and indicate in the analysis what is most central in Luther's discussion of them. Connections between various concepts are treated where appropriate (connection between justification, good works and the law, for instance has been examined in section 4.4.1).
Introduction to Chapter 4 – Previous Research on Substantial Concepts in Luther's Commentary on Galatians There are a number of works, both monographs and articles, which deal with various concepts within Luther's Galatians. However, most of them relate only to a limited part of Luther's commentary, either focusing on a specific section of the commentary or investigating a particular theme / aspect, rather than looking at substantial concepts in the commentary as a whole.527 These writings have been referred to in appropriate contexts within the analysis of the commentary itself
(sections 4.1-4.7). There are six works which it seemed appropriate to review briefly before analysing the commentary itself. Bornkamm's Luthers Auslegungen des Galaterbriefs von 1519 und 1531: ein Vergleich, purposely endeavours to identify central themes in Luther's commentary as a whole (with the possible addition of Robert Kolb's article – see discussion below) and has thus been of special importance to this section as well.528 Nevertheless, the other four (five excluding Kolb's article) have also been in their own way helpful and therefore are also discussed here. Each of the publications has also expressly discussed at relative length at least three varying concepts in Luther's commentary.
The works are examined in the order of their time of publication.
Due to constraints of space, the reviews below primarily discuss which themes the respective authors have identified as central in Luther's Galatians.
Karin Bornkamm, in her work Luthers Auslegungen des Galaterbriefs von 1519 und 1531: ein Vergleich, compares how Luther interprets
Paul's letter to Galatians in his two commentaries on Galatians from 1519 and 1531/35. Therefore, Bornkamm has paid careful attention to substantial concepts in Luther's Galatians529 of 1531/35.
Interestingly, there are both similarities and differences in Bornkamm's portrayal of the central ideas of Luther's 1531/35 commentary as compared to this study. As in this research, the themes of justification, law, good works (discussed as a second part to the chapter dealing with the law in Bornkamm's study), and ministry are identified by Bornkamm as central to Luther's
There is one key issue in Bornkamm's book, which has not received thorough attention in this research, namely the notion of personal tribulation and anxiety over one's faith (Anfechtung). The importance of this theme to Luther's commentary can hardly be disputed. Nevertheless, it seemed more
527See the section in the bibliography listing literature on Luther's commentary on Galatians for more detail on these worksl
528See section 3.1.1 for further detail and discussion on Bornkamm's comment, both in reference to Luther's commentary on Galatians 1519 and that of 1531/35.
529With Galatians here, as elsewhere, I mean Luther's commentary on Galatians of 1531/1535, and not Luther's commentary on Galatians of 1519.
530Bornkamm 1963: xiv-xv, 316-360, under the heading of the fulfilment of the law (Erfüllung des appropriate to identify the substantial concepts differently in this research. Part of what Bornkamm analyses in the chapter on the believers' Anfechtungen, has been discussed under other headings here (e.g. under the headings of law and gospel – section 4.1.3; and the assurance of salvation – section 4.4.2).
On the other hand, Bornkamm has no separate chapter on the work of the Holy Spirit and on the scandal of the cross / suffering as a Christian, which were both identified as central to Luther's Galatians in the preparation for this research. Further, the notion of Christian liberty does not seem to get the attention it would appear to deserve in Bornkamm's study.
At any rate, Bornkamm's work has been more helpful for this research than perhaps any other, being comprehensive and perceptive in its analysis of central concepts within Luther's Galatians.
Tuomo Mannermaa, in his book, In Ipsa Fide Christus Adest:
Luterilaisen ja ortodoksisen kristinuskonkäsityksen leikkauspiste, introduces central concepts of what has become known as the Finnish school of Luther interpretation.531 Mannermaa's work is primarily grounded in Luther's Galatians.
Mannermaa's book is ingenious in that he explains many focal ideas of the commentary in light of one key concept, namely that of Christ present in faith (in ipsa fide Christus adest). Thus Christology and justification, the forensic and effective aspects of justification, the Word, sacraments, the work of the Holy Spirit and the relationship of the Christian to good works and the law are all explained in relationship to this one concept.532
According to this research, Mannermaa's suggestion of the centrality of the concept in ipsa fides Christus adest appears to have more substantiation for his position within Luther's Galatians, than the earlier Christus
Victor concept championed by Gustaf Aulén and others, for instance. This research also suggests that the idea of Christ's presence in faith (or union with Christ) is an important one among the pictures Luther uses of justification. Nevertheless, it does not appear to be the only one. The fact that so much attention is given to one key concept, in ipsa fide Christus adest, may therefore run the risk of neglecting some other central ideas relating both to justification and other concepts in Luther's
531Mannermaa 1979. Mannermaa's book has been later published both in German and in English. See Mannermaa, Tuomo. Der im Glauben gegenwärtige Christus: Rechtfertigung und Vergottung: Zum ökumenischen Dialog. Hanover: Lutherisches Verlag, 1989 and Mannermaa, Tuomo. Christ Present in Faith: Luther's View of Justification. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2005.
532For instance, Mannermaa suggests a solution to the ecumenically problematic separation of the forensic (declarative) and effective aspects of justification in the Formula of Concord, by the concept of Christ as both favor and donum at the same time. According to Mannermaa, the presence of Christ in faith, represents real righteousness (effective aspect) and is completed by a declaration of righteousness
(declarative, forensic aspect). See Mannermaa 1979: 12-18. Mannermaa also bridges at least part of the gap between the Greek Orthodox and Lutheran faiths through the idea of theosis (~deification) which he sees in Luther, where the Christian, through the presence of Christ in faith becomes a sharer of divine attributes (Mannermaa 1979: 43-45). See further discussion on these concepts in section 4.1.1.2. commentary.533 At the same time, there is much that is insightful in various aspects of Mannermaa's carefully documented analysis.
Hermann Kleinknecht's book, Gemeinschaft ohne Bedingungen:
Kirche und Rechtfertigung in Luthers grosser Galaterbrief-Vorlesung von 1531 sets out to examine the concepts of church and justification in Luther's Galatians. In addition to investigating the concepts of church and justification, Kleinknecht's work includes a detailed analysis of the notion of the law and good works as well.
Kleinknecht's study is helpful in that he appears to treat especially the concepts of justification and the law as a whole, and not only as they relate to the church – justification relationship.
Interestingly, the concept of the law seems to receive the most comprehensive treatment in Kleinknecht's book, even more so than the doctrines of justification and the church, which are his stated focus. Especially Kleinknecht's investigation of the various ways in which the law relates to justification in Luther's commentary seems both insightful and perceptive.534 In his analysis of justification,
Kleinknecht underlines the centrality of justifying faith and of Christ as therighteousness of the Christian.535 The perspective on justification differs somewhat from that of this study, though both cover much of the same ground. It seems nonetheless that some concepts relating to justification, in addition to those identified by Kleinknecht, deserve more attention, including the contrast between two kinds of righteousness and Christian freedom, for instance. Kleinknecht's treatment of good works is fairly comprehensive, although it focuses slightly more on the relationship between good works and justification, which is understandable, taken Kleinknecht's focus of study.536 Interestingly, the chapter on good works includes a relatively long consideration of the struggle between the flesh and the Spirit, which perhaps would have deserved a chapter of its own.537
Rosalies Taube has authored a detailed and comprehensive analysis of Luther's Galatians from an existential point of view in her dissertation, Gott und das Ich – erörtert in einer Auseinandersetzung mit Luthers Lehre über Glaube und
Liebe in seinem Galater-Kommentar (1531/35). Taube discusses an important aspect of Luther's commentary, in that various doctrines are applied personally to 'the I' (das Ich), which is demonstrably a focal concern to Luther in his commentary. Taube's analysis of 'the I' in Luther's commentary includes a consideration of justification, faith, love of one's neighbour and the concept of the 533Furthermore, Mannermaa's key concepts are primarily founded on a limited part of Luther's commentary, namely his comments on Gal. 2.16 and 2.20.
534Kleinknecht identifies, for instance, the importance of seeing God's promise as God's first Word over the law as central and highlights the importance of seeing Christ as the end of the law. See Kleinknecht
1981: 20-25, 39-44. See section 4.2. for further discussion.
535See Kleinknecht 1981: 11-19, 47-54.
536See Kleinknecht 1981: 54-66.
537See Kleinknecht 1981: 61-65. dark/concealed God (der dunkle Gott).538 The chapters dealing with faith (ch. II) and love (ch. III) also give detailed attention to, among other things, one's relationship with Christ, the struggle between the Spirit and the flesh as well as the notion of good works.539 However, from the point of view of the goal of this research, Taube's analysis, for the reason that it looks at Luther's commentary from the point of view of 'the I', can give less attention to some other key concepts of Luther's Galatians such as the law, the work of the Holy Spirit, ministry, and the concept of the scandal of the cross / suffering as a Christian.
Jeffrey G. Silcock's thesis, Luther and the Third Use of the Law with Special Reference to His Great Galatians Commentary, investigates Luther's position on the disputed third use of the law in Luther's commentary. Silcock discusses several other related themes as well, including the law and gospel, the law in general, sanctification, the struggle between the flesh and the Spirit as well as Christian freedom.540
Silcock's work, though written as a master's thesis, contains many insightful points on various aspects of Luther's theology in his Galatians. His analysis of the relationship of Luther's totus iustus – totus peccator and partia iustus – partia peccator concepts in the context of the believer's struggle between the flesh and the Spirit, for instance, appears enlightening.541 While Silcock's insights are in several ways helpful, they are nevertheless limited due to the fact he only analyses the concepts of Luther's commentary to the degree they relate to the third use of the law.
Robert Kolb, in his article, The Influence of Luther's Galatians Commentary of 1535 on Later Sixteenth-Century Lutheran Commentaries on Galatians,542 discusses the theology of Luther's Galatians in relation to later 16th century Lutheran commentators of Galatians. For the purposes of this research, it is interesting that Kolb has chosen four theological concepts from Luther's commentary for his discussion, a) two kinds of righteousness, b) the joyous exchange, c) simul iustus et peccator (righteous and sinner at the same time) and d) the law of God.543 Kolb seems to regard these four concepts as key concepts in Luther's commentary,544 and especially so Luther's distinction between two kinds of righteousness (passive vs. active righteousness ~ righteousness of faith vs. righteousness of works). It is easy to agree with Kolb in seeing the distinction between the two kinds of righteousness as central in Luther's commentary, and 539See Taube 1986: 41-429.
541See Silcock 1993: 47-53.
543Kolb 1993: 170-182.
544Kolb does not explicitly state that he regards these four concepts as the most central ones in Luther's commentary, but that they were 'important' in Luther's interpretation and that these ideas were 'peculiar' to Luther's commentary, 'ignored or slighted' by later commentators. See Kolb 1993: 159, 170-176.
Kolb's insight of seeing this as the underlying concept behind the law / gospel distinction seems thought provoking as well.545 The notion of the law of God, which Kolb discusses in detail, is also clearly central throughout Luther's Galatians.
In a way it is difficult to disagree with Kolb in choosing the two other central concepts, 546 the joyous exchange and simul iustus et peccator for his discussion, because the importance of these ideas to Luther's concept of justification is so clearly evident.547 Nevertheless, there are other themes, as Kolb partly admits, which Luther treats in more detail than these two chosen by Kolb.
These themes include those of good works, the Holy Spirit and the concept of ministry and other aspects of the concept of justification, each of which is not only frequently discussed by Luther, but also central to his understanding of Paul's epistle to the Galatians.548 It seems therefore necessary to point to these other central concepts when highlighting the substantial themes in Luther's commentary.
In the analysis in preparation for this section, it became evident that the themes which Luther discusses the most often also appear to be the most central.549 As expected, the concept of justification was by far the most prevalent subject treated in Luther's Galatians.550 Other important themes include the law, good works and the work of the Holy Spirit. What was somewhat surprising, at least to the author of this research, was the prominent position of the themes of ministry and the concept of the scandal of the cross and suffering as a Christian.
It may be in place to briefly explain some aspects of the chosen order for presenting the substantial concepts at this point. It is recognized that there would have been some merit in starting the presentation with a consideration of the 546Kolb 1993. 172-176.
547It must be borne in mind that the purpose of Kolb's article is to compare ideas peculiar to Luther's commentary with the later 16th century Lutheran commentators on Galatians. Kolb's choice of these two concepts, the joyous exchange and simul iustus et peccator, may have been partly influenced by his looking for ideas, which the later commentators did not fully expound in the style of Luther. See Kolb
548Kolb recognizes that Luther does not discuss simul iustus et peccator very often in his commentary.
Nevertheless, Kolb sees the concept as central. Kolb 1993: 176. Much depends on what each author sets out to do and which concepts are chosen as primary. Kolb, for instance, sees the joyous exchange as a main theme, and the concepts of union with Christ and Christ as the Greatest Sinner (maximus peccator) as its subthemes, instead of seeing the two others in light of the concept of union with Christ. Kolb 1993:
549See Appendix 4. However, this study is not based on the assumption that the most frequently discussed concepts are automatically the most important in Luther's commentary. Instead, it emerged during research that focusing on the most frequently discussed themes gave the most comprehensive and accurate picture of substantial concepts in Luther's Galatians. At the same time, this approach is seen to safeguard against coming to Luther's Galatians with a preconceived idea of what its key ideas are. See also the general note at the end of Appendix 4 for further detail.
550Kvist highlights the importance of justification in Luther's understanding to the whole work of Christ in salvation, 'Jos siitä [Smalkadenin opinkohtien toisesta osasta, vanhurskauttamisoppi] väistytään tai annetaan periksi, Kristuksen koko pelastustyön ymmärtäminen on tehty kyseenalaiseksi.' Kvist 1996: 29. work of Christ / work of the Holy Spirit, in line with the fact that Luther sees justification as beginning with God's work, and not with the human agent.
However, as Luther begins his commentary with a consideration of two kinds of righteousness, the passive and the active, it is seen justified to do the same here.551
The other concepts relating to justification are treated following the discussion of passive vs. active righteousness, which is succeeded by an analysis of the concepts of the work of the Holy Spirit, the law, good works, the scandal of the cross / suffering as a Christian and ministry. The notions of Luther's Galatians have been placed in a roughly thematic order instead of simply following the frequency of the concepts. Thus the theme of ministry, though more frequent than those of the work of the Holy Spirit, the scandal of the cross and good works, has been discussed last.
Current studies, which focus on Luther's concept of justification within his Galatians, often seem to prioritise Luther's exposition of Gal. 2.16-21.552 This seems unfortunate, since the attention is often given almost exclusively to this passage. While this passage is undoubtedly important, there are several other major expositions of Luther's on justification both preceding and following the one of Gal.
2.16-20.553 Luther himself says that he has come to the conclusion of the main argument of the epistle only with Gal. 3.17-18, Gal. 4.8-9, or even at Gal. 5.12.554
Another main concern of many recent works on Luther's Galatians deals with the 551The concept of passive vs. active righteousness also draws attention to the fact that both the beginning and the accomplishment of justification lies with God, and not with the human, a concern central to 552See e.g. Bornkamm 1963: 89-127, Mannermaa 1979, Strelow 1991, Seifrid 2003. There are others, who do not prioritise Gal. 2.16-21. See e.g. Kleinknect 1981: 11-19, 47-54, Brecht 1986: 432-437, Taube
553While it is undoubtedly true that Luther saw Gal. 2.16-21 as important, it is noteworthy that after his Galatians lectures he never chose to preach on this passage. Instead, the thirty sermons he preached on Galatians from 1531 onwards all relate to chapters 3-6. Kleinknecht has made a helpful list of all of Luther's sermons following the commencement of his Galatians lectures 1531 in the end of his Luthers
Galaterbrief Auslegung von 1531, vol. 4: Der Galaterbrief, pp. 361-362, 386-387.
554See WA 40a.470.24-27, on Gal. 3.17, WA 40a.473.20-23, on Gal. 3.18, WA40a.600.25-26, on Gal.
4.8-9 and WA40b.59.20-30, on Gal. 5.12. Having concluded the first two chapters of Galatians and having begun lecturing on Gal. 3.1, Luther states that Paul has now arrived at the middle of his proceedings (in media illa actione). WA 40a.309.14, on Gal. 3.1. Even if one investigates the themes treated by Luther by the time his exposition of Gal. 3.17, it is evident that Luther has already introduced all of his main arguments relating to justification. Therefore, even if one were to look only at the first part of Luther's commentary until his exposition of Gal. 3.17, one ought not draw the conclusion that union with Christ (majored on by the Finnish school of Luther interpretation) or Christus Victor (the central focus of the Lundian school) are more significant than other themes related with justification
(such as the law / gospel distinction, Christian liberty etc.) in Luther's discussion. See Appendix 4 for the identification of these themes until and including Luther's exposition of Gal. 3.17 and compare this with the summary of the substantial concepts in the whole of Luther's Galatians. connection / distinction / separation of the forensic (legal) and participatory aspects of justification.555 Luther does not deal with this question directly in his commentary, however, perhaps because the subject had not yet become a central issue of contention by the time of his lectures in 1531. Nevertheless, some attention is given to this subject in some of the sections below due to its importance in current research.
The examination of Luther's concept of justification is here begun by giving some attention to Luther's concept of two kinds of righteousness, which Luther first introduces in his Argumentum epistolae. It is noteworthy that while
Luther is discussing the theme of justification by faith throughout his exposition, he mostly considers it in opposition to the contrasting concept of righteousness by the law.556 This is followed by an investigation of the role of Christ in justification, gospel and law and Christian liberty.557
4.1.1. Two Kinds of Righteousness The title for this part of the research, 'two kinds of righteousness' is taken from Luther's argument for the epistle to Galatians, where Luther contrasts righteousness of two kinds, the active and the passive. The contrast between the two kinds of righteousness is termed somewhat differently in different contexts. Sometimes it is the object of righteousness that is under discussion, for instance the righteousness of the law vs. Christ or Christ's righteousness. At other times the means of obtaining righteousness are in question, for example love or human merit vs. faith.558
The investigation here is commenced by an examination of instances where Christian righteousness is contrasted with human or legal righteousness (sections 4.1.1.1 - 4.1.1.3), followed by the contradistinction of faith vs. love / works (section 4.1.1.4) and concluded with an assessment of Luther's example of Abraham of faith vs. Abraham of procreation (section 4.1.1.5).559
555See e.g. Mannermaa 1979: 17-18, Seifrid: 2003: 225-230, Vainio 2004: 51-57.
556Leif Erikson also draws attention to the contrast by righteousness of faith with that by works in Luther's Galatians, and sees this as the principal theme of the commentary. Erikson states, 'Om man vill karaktärisera Luthers kommentar over Galaterbrevet kan man saga att den I huvudsak gäller trosrättfärdigheten kontra gärningsrättfärdigheten, men att reformatorn också kommer in på många andra frågor – bl.a. på frågan om Guds ords väsen och funktion i sammanhanget.' See Erikson 1994: 86.
557It needs to be borne in mind that the various parts of the discussion on justification are not clearly distinct in Luther's discussion. The theme of gospel and law, for instance, could possibly have been discussed under the heading of two kinds of righteousness. The themes of law and gospel, Christian liberty and the role of Christ in justification are also intimately tied with the themes of two kinds of righteousness.
558It needs to be borne in mind, however, that Luther often draws no distinction between the object and the means of obtaining righteousness.
559In other words, Abraham from the perspective of faith vs. Abraham from a human point of view, representing righteousness of works.
4.1.1.1. Passive vs. Active Righteousness As noted above, a number of recent studies on justification in Luther's Galatians have centred their attention to Luther's exposition of Gal. 2.16-21. One of the important passages which is frequently neglected is Luther's introductory staging of the theme of justification in his Argumentum epistolae, where Luther contrasts two kinds of righteousness, the active and the passive.
Active righteousness represents righteousness in the human sphere and includes political and ceremonial righteousness as well as righteousness of the law.560 Luther maintains that human righteousness is good and commendable, whether it be ceremonial or that of the law, when it is not required as necessary for obtaining God's favour. However, when human acts of righteousness are performed as self-chosen works, in an attempt to be justified, they then assume a wicked role.
Luther terms this kind of righteousness as active righteousness (iustitia activa).
Passive righteousness (iustitia passiva), on the other hand, represents God's righteousness given to humans, who passively receive it. Thus in passive righteousness the acting agent is God, the human contributing nothing at all.
Instead, by faith, the believers take hold of Christ, whose righteousness is imputed to them and counted as theirs.561 Luther states,
'In other words, this is the righteousness of Christ and of the Holy Spirit, which we do not perform but receive, which we do not have but accept, when God the Father grants it to us through Jesus Christ. … As much as the dry earth of itself is able to accomplish in obtaining the right and blessed rain, that much can we men accomplish by our own strength and works to obtain that divine, heavenly, and eternal righteousness. Thus we can obtain it only through the free imputation and indescribable gift of 560Est enim multiplex iustitia. Quaedam est politica quam Caesar, Principes mundi, philosophi et iureconsulti tractant. Alia est ceremonialis quam docent traditiones humanae, ut traditiones Papae et similes. Eam sine periculo tradunt patresfamilias et paedagogi, quia non tribuunt ei vim ad satisfaciendum pro peccatis, ad placandum deum et promerendam gratiam, sed tradunt ceremonias necessarias tantum ad disciplinam morum et certas observationes. Praeter has est alia quaedam iustitia legalis seu decalogi quam Moses docet. Hanc et nos docemus post doctrinam fidei.
Ultra et supra has omnes est fidei seu Christiana Iustitia quae diligentissime discernenda est ab illis superioribus. WA 40a.40.20-29. Argumentum.
561Ista autem excellentissima iustitia, nempe fidei, quam Deus per Christum nobis absque operibus imputat, nec est politica nec ceremonialis nec legis divinae iustitia nec versatur in nostris operibus, sed est plane diversa, hoc est mere passiva iustitia (sicut illae superiores activae). Ibi enim nihil operamur aut reddimus Deo, sed tantum recipimus et patimur alium operantem in nobis, scilicet Deum. WA 40a.41.15562In summa: Christi et Spiritus sancti quam non facimus, sed patimur, non habemus, sed accipimus, donante eam nobis Deo Patre per Iesum Christum. … Quantum igitur arida terra ex se efficere potest ad comparandam sibi largam et felicissimam pluviam, tantum etiam nos homines nostris viribus et operibus efficere possumus ad comparandam nobis illam divinam, coelestem et aeternam iustitiam, nisi per gratuitam imputationem et per inenarrabile donum Dei illam consequamur. WA 40a.43.15-17, 20-25,
The following two parts on Luther's view on justification deal primarily with Luther's much discussed exposition of Gal. 2.16-21 including additional insights from Luther's comment on other pertinent passages.
4.1.1.2. Faith Formed by Christ vs. Faith Formed by Love (Union with Christ) Another illustration of two kinds of righteousness is Luther's discussion of the forma of faith. Luther contrasts the concept of faith formed by love (fides charitate formata) of mediaeval Catholic theology on the one hand, and faith formed by Christ (fides Christo formata) on the other.563 A central theme here is that of the believer's union with Christ (unio cum Christo), which has been majored on by the Finnish school of Luther interpretation. Luther uses several images to demonstrate the closeness of the believer's union with Christ, presenting Christ as sticking to faith as closely as a ring encloses a gem,564 as colour sticks to a wall, and describing the believer as having become one body with Christ and been cemented with him in such a manner that they are as one person.565 A joyous exchange takes place in this union, so that Christ absorbs the believer's sin566, while the believer is transferred
563Mediaeval theology used categories taken from Aristotle to describe the relationship between faith and love. Thus faith was materia and love the forma of faith. In Aristotle's thinking a chair, for instance, is constituted of materia and forma, the first representing the various visible parts of the chair and the latter the reality of the chair or the 'chairness' of the chair, really making it a true chair. Thus love is what makes faith real, being the forma of faith according to scholastic theology. In his study on Aristoteles as used in Luther and during the Reformation, Braw explains that Luther uses the concepts forma – materia with an accent not present in the philosopher himself. Aristoteles saw forma as existing only in materia.
For Luther, however, forma comes from the outside, from God and this forma, given by God, is passively received by the human agent, represented by the concept materia. Braw states, 'Luther använder här Aristoteles begrepp form-materia men på ett annat sätt än filosofen. För Aristoteles finns formen endast i materien och är dess gestaltande princip. … I Luthers bild är formen det varmed Gud gestaltar materien. Formen kommer utifrån, aktivt, från Gud. Materien skall endast passivt ta emot formen. Detta är för Luther ett sätt att med filosofiska begrepp belysa det som är hans Anliegen, nådens primat.' Braw 2007: 180. For further detail on the Aristotelian concepts forma and materia as used by Luther, and their close relationship to the concepts actio – passio in Luther's discussion, see Braw 2007:
179-184. For more information on how Aristoteles' thoughts were used by Luther, Melanchthon and the Lutheran confessions, see Braw 2007: 151-207. Mannermaa, too, sees the schema materia vs.forma as focal in Luther's theology of the cross. Mannermaa 1983: 48-49.
564Fides enim apprehendit Christum et habet eum praesentem includitque eum ut annulus gemmam, Et qui fuerit inventus cum tali fide apprehensi Christi in corde, illum reputat Deus iustum. WA 40a.233.17565'Iam non Ego, sed Christus in me vivit'; Is est mea forma ornans fidem meam, ut color vel lux parietem ornat. (Sic crasse res illa exponenda est; Non enim possumus spiritualiter comprehendere tam proxime et intime Christum haerere et manere in nobis, quam lux vel albedo in pariete haeret.) Christus ergo, inquit, sic inhaerens et conglutinatus mihi et manens in me hanc vitam quam ago, vivit in me, imo vita qua sic vivo, est Christus ipse. Itaque Christus et ego iam unum in hac parte sumus. WA 40a.283.2632; on Gal. 2.20. See also WA 40a.228.27-30; on Gal. 2.16.
566See also the discussion on Christ as the greatest sinner (maximus peccator) in section 4.1.2. on the role of Christ in justification. by faith into Christ's life and kingdom.567 If the believer were to be separated from Christ, that would mean falling back under the law and under damnation.568 The believer thus lives a double life. On the one hand, from the perspective of this world, the believer lives a normal life with all its activities. On the other hand, seen spiritually, his true life is the one by faith, hidden in and with Christ.569
In the light of this study, it seems that while it has been important to highlight the importance of the theme of union with Christ in Luther, the Finnish school of Luther interpretation,570 in majoring on one of the many pictures of justification in Luther's Galatians, may at times run the risk of making a forest out
567Sic Christus in me manens et vivens tollit et absorbet omnia mala quae me cruciant et affligunt. Quare haec inhaerentia facit, ut liberer a terroribus legis et peccati, eximar e cute mea et transferar in Christum ac in illius regnum, quod est regnum gratiae, iustitiae, pacis, gaudii, vitae, salutis et gloriae aeternae; in illo autem agens, nihil mali potest nocere mihi. WA 40a.284.1419; on Gal. 2.20.
568Si vero in me tantum intueor excluso Christo, actum est de me. Nam tum statim mihi incidit ista cogitatio: Christus est in coelis, tu in terris; qua ratione nunc venies ad eum? Ego sancte vivam et hoc quod lex requirit, faciam atque ita in vitam ingrediar! Ibi in me conversus et considerans, qualis ego sim vel esse debeam, item quid mihi faciundum sit, amitto ex oculis Christum qui solus est iustitia et vita mea. Hoc amisso non est consilium aut auxilium, sed necesse est certam desperationem et perditionem sequi. WA 40a.282.23-30; on Gal. 2.20.
569Est igitur duplex vita: Mea naturalis vel animalis, et aliena, scilicet Christi in me.WA 40a.287.28-29; on Gal. 2.20.
Sic vides me quidem loquentem, edentem, operantem, dormientem etc., et tamen vitam meam non vides, Quia hoc vitae tempus quod ego vivo, in carne quidem vivo, sed non vivo ex carne vel secundum carnem, sed in fide, ex fide et secundum fidem. WA 40a.288.27-30; on Gal. 2.20.
570Mannermaa associates the concept theosis with the believer's union with Christ, suggesting an ontic exchange of qualities between the believer and Christ and drawing a parallel with the Orthodox concept of deification (Mannermaa 1979: 43-46). It would deserve a study of its own to deal with this specific theme within Luther's Galatians. It seems, however, that when Luther expounds those statements where the believer is identified with Christ, he repeatedly emphasizes the receiving of Christ's righteousness and his victory over the law. Accordingly, one may therefore ask whether Luther is in fact discussing deification in these instances despite the fact that some of Luther's statements render that interpretation semantically possible. It appears, rather, that Luther is simply asserting that Christ, not love, is the form of faith (forma fide). Therefore, while in the context of current Finnish Luther research, in ipsa fide
Christus adest has been interpreted in the context of deification, it is here regarded that Luther sees in ipsa fide Christus adest in the context of having the present Christ as our only righteousness in opposition to having love / law as our righteousness. See e.g. WA 40a.235.15-25; on Gal. 2.16 and WA
40a.279.23-29; on Gal. 2.19. This would also appear to be more in line with Luther's later statement in reference to Osiander, where he expresses his indignation at Osiander's view according to which Christ dwells in believers essentially (Christus .. in nobis habitat essentialiter) – Luther maintained instead that Christ dwells in believers through faith and grace (per fidem et gratiam). See WA Tischreden
4.5047.634-635, 1540. A similar concern is highlighted by Dennis Bieldfeld, who sees the Finnish school as taking some of Luther's statements on theosis and Christ's presence within the believer too literally.
Bieldfeld prefers to see Luther as talking about perichoresis rather than theosis, that is, of Christ's presence within the believer, but not his participation in the human essentially. Just as Christ is present with the bread and the wine (consubstantion), but does not become bread or wine in his essence
(transsubstantion), Christ's presence within the believer ought to be understood as a presence with the human (perichoresis), and not in terms of deification (theosis). See Bieldfeld 1998: 165-166. of a tree.571 It seems that in order to have a balanced understanding of Luther's doctrine of justification in his Galatians one needs to bear in mind the several other pictures of justification, some of which are more frequent and prevalent than that of the believer's union with Christ.572
A similar consideration indicates a need for caution on seeing an indisputable connection between the forensic (legal) and participatory aspects of justification in Luther's presentation of the believer's union with Christ573 or in his
571Ingemar Öberg draws attention to the 'enormous emphasis' of Mannermaa on Christ's real-ontic indwelling in Luther's Galatians, and asks whether this may not have led to the neglect of the concepts of Word/gospel and the foundational concept of imputed righteousness. Öberg states, 'Frågan är ändå om
Mannermaa inte presser tillbaka Ordet/evangeliet och trons grundläggande, tillräknade rättfärdighet hos reformatorn genom den enorma betoningen av Guds/Kristi inneboende i tron.' See Öberg 2002: 537.
572These include the contrast between Christian righteousness and righteousness of works, the contrast between faith and love / works / reason, the law and gospel contrast and Christian liberty. See the summary of substantial concepts in Appendix 4 for further detail. It is also noteworthy that in the thirty sermons Luther preached on the themes of Galatians from 1531 onwards none focuses on the passage in Gal. 2.16-21, for which union with Christ is focal. Instead, Luther's favourite theme seems to be the distinction and the relationship between the law and the gospel. Another theme he frequently returns to is that of the struggle between the Spirit and the flesh. For references, see Kleinknecht's helpful introduction to these sermons in Kleinknecht 1980: 361-408, esp. 361-362, 386-387.
Friederike Nüssel cautions against confusing the persons of Christ and the believer in his article 'Ich lebe, doch nun nicht ich, sondern Christus lebt in mir' (Gal 2.20a). Dogmatische
Überlegungen zur Rede vom "Sein in Christus" (2002). Nüssel states, 'Das Ich, von dem Paulus sagt "nicht mehr ich", versteht Luther dabei als das Ich, welches unter dem Gesetz steht und darum eine von
Christus geschiedene Person repräsentiert (Nüssel 2002: 488). He further explains how faith cannot simply be understood as 'habitus oder Qualität'. He asserts, 'Die Einsicht in die ekstatische Struktur des
Glaubens macht es dabei unmöglich, den Glauben als habitus oder Qualität zu beschreiben. Dass der Glaubende zwar einerseits um seine Gerechtigkeit in Christus weiss, sich in der Selbstbetrachtung empirisch aber ausserhalb von Christus wahrnimmt, ist wiederum die Voraussetzung, unter der dem
Glaubenden nach Luther die Selbstwahrnehmung als Gerechter und Sünder zugleich, als "simul iustus et peccator" möglich wird' (Nüssel 2002: 490).
573See e.g. Mannermaa 1979: 17-18, Seifrid: 2003: 225-230, Vainio 2004: 51-57. Both the Finnish school of Luther interpretation and the Formula of Concord, the position of which on the believer's union with Christ has come under critique by the Finnish school of Luther interpretation, represent a different situation with a varying set of presuppositions. The former was preceded by the controversy with Andreas Osiander and other developments leading to the formulations of confessional Lutheranism (on these developments, see e.g. Vainio 2004), and the latter is intimately connected with the ecumenical perspective, originally commencing in the context of the discussions between Lutherans and the Greek
Orthodox church. Therefore, great effort must be taken in order that questions of a later situation would not be imposed to an earlier period. While the Formula of Concord looks at Luther's writings from a certain perspective, the same is undoubtedly true with the new Finnish school as well. The position taken here is that Luther's Galatians gives no distinct answer to the question on how the forensic and participatory / effective aspects of justification relate to each other. Bornkamm, for her part, also sees the concepts of imputatio and unio as remaining in tension in Luther's Galatians. She sees imputatio as the primary concept (das sachlich Primäre), though it is not important in her view which of the two takes place first. She regards imputatio as linked with the declaration of righteousness (die völlige
Gerechterklärung des Menschen), and unio connected to the believer's struggle with sin, their partial righteousness (teilweisen Gerechtigkeit). See Bornkamm 1963: 77, 80-81. For a fuller discussion on the concepts, see Bornkamm 1963: 67, 72, 74-84, 154. reference to Christ's indwelling by faith (in ipsa fide Christus adest).574 It seems important to avoid pressing Luther into answering a question, which is not yet resolved within his writings, or at least not within his Galatians. Luther uses varying parallel illustrations of justification in his commentary, some of which lend themselves easily and others uncomfortably to affirming a connection between the forensic and participatory aspects of justification.575
4.1.1.3. Christian Righteousness vs. Righteousness by Works In this part, the focus is on those instances where Luther contrasts Christian righteousness with righteousness by human works. Christian righteousness is represented by Christ's righteousness, alternatively the 'giving' of Christ, Christ's death, Christ who has already come, works done with Christ or simply Christ.576
574Luisivan Vellar Strelow has drawn attention to the fact that the words 'in ipsa fide Christus adest' do not occur in Rörer's notes of Luther's lectures. See Strelow 1991: 123. The written commentary adds the whole phrase (missing in the original lecture notes), 'Sic ut Christus sit obiectum fidei, imo non obiectum, sed, ut ita dicam, in ipsa fide Christus adest.' WA 40a.228.34, 229.15. Thus the corresponding place in the lecture notes stands, 'Fides non est aliqua otiosa qualitas in corde, quod fides Christiana possit consistere in peccato mortali, donec accedat charitas quae vivificet; sed si vera, est quaedam fiducia cordis et firmitas assensus quo apprehendo Christum. [the written version of the lectures adds the above noted missing phrase here]. Fides est quaedam cognitio quae nihil videt; in istis nubibus sedet, nisi
Christu apprehensus, quia; Sicut in templo sedebat in medio tenebrarum. WA 40a.228.12-15, 229.1-2.
For a fuller understanding of the passage, compare the lecture notes WA 40a.228.12-15, 229.1-7 with the written commentary WA 40a.228.33-34, 229.15-25. Luther expresses a similar thought later, on Christ's presence 'in that cloud, faith' (in ipsa nebula, fide), where the lecture notes and the written version correspond to each other more closely. In this instance, the lecture notes read, 'Ideo iustificat fides, dicimus, quia habet illum thesaurum, quia Christus adest; quomodo, non est cogitabile. Qui habet veram fiduciam cordis, — adest ipse in ipsa nebula, fide.' WA 40a.229.4-7. The written version stands,
'Iustificat ergo fides, quia apprehendit et possidet istum thesaurum, scilicet Christum praesentem. Sed quo modo praesens sit, non est cogitabile, quia sunt tenebrae, ut dixi. Ubi ergo vera fiducia cordis est, ibi adest Christus in ipsa nebula et fide.' WA 40a.229.22-25. It therefore appears possible, perhaps even probable, that Luther never said the words 'in ipsa fide Christus adest' in his lectures. Nevertheless, it needs to be borne in mind that a similar thought is expressed both in Rörer's lecture notes and in the written commentary soon afterwards. Further, as Luther explicitly accepted the written version of the commentary from 1535, the phrase 'in ipsa fide Christus adest' may be regarded as expressing Luther's thought. (Despite the fact that Strelow remarks that the phrase 'in ipsa fide Christus adest' is missing in Rörer's lecture notes, he also accepts Christ's presence in faith as belonging to Luther's thought. See e.g.
Strelow 1991: 123-124).
575For instance, Luther's portrayal of passive vs. active righteousness (WA 40a.40.14-51.34; Argumentum epistolae), Christian righteousness vs. righteousness of works, Abraham of faith vs.
Abraham of procreation (WA 40a.373.18-391.26; on Gal. 3.7-9) and the distinction between law and gospel (see references in Appendix 4 and under section 4.1.3) present justification in a way which appears easily explained in terms of forensic justification, while on the other hand the picture of the believer's union, with its emphasis, Christ's presence in the believer's heart, more naturally lends itself to a view prioritising participatory or the effective aspect of justification.
576This section, as well as the section on union with Christ, could possibly have been discussed under the title 'Role of Christ in Justification' (section 4.1.2). However, as these themes are presented in terms of the contrast between two kinds of righteousness, Christ's righteousness in opposition to righteousness of the law/works, it seems more fitting to deal with them here.
Proceeding further from the concept of union with Christ, Luther contrapositions the giving of Christ with humans offering or giving their own works for the purpose of attaining justification in Gal. 2.20-21.577 It is Christ who took the initiative and gave himself (tradidit semet ipsum) to save evil humans. It is therefore a wicked blasphemy to offer human works or satisfactions and imagine that they, instead of the giving of Christ, could placate God's wrath. Luther states,
'These words, "the Son of God," "He loved me," and "He gave Himself for me," are sheer thunder and heavenly fire against the righteousness of the Law and the doctrine of works. There was such great evil, such great error, and such darkness and ignorance in my will and intellect that I could be liberated only by such an inestimable price.'578
Further, Luther juxtaposes Christ's death with human works, whether the human works are performed de congruo (outside the state of grace) or de condigno (within the state of grace).579 Luther maintains that offering any kind of works, instead of by faith alone trusting in Christ's death on our behalf, is nullifying the grace of God.580
In two further contexts, commenting on Gal. 3.14 and 5.3-4, Luther shows how the patriarchs of the Old Testament, who lived under the law, by faith waited for the Christ to come. The law had a central role for the patriarchs, but as Christ now has already come, one ought not attempt to go back under the law.
Instead, one ought to put one's faith in Christ for the receiving of grace and the forgiveness of sin.581
577Bornkamm affirms, 'Christus bleibt auch bei der engsten Vereinigung – conglutinatio, ihhaesio fidea, quasi unum corpus in spiritu – das Gegenüber des Glaubenden. Die Rechtfertigung gründet sich deshalb night auf das Leben, das der Glaubende in der Vereinigung mit Christus führt, sondern allein auf das
Werk Christi selbst' (Bornkamm 1963: 103-104).
578WA 40a.294.31-295.13, on Gal. 2.20. See WA 40a.290.33-295.34, on Gal. 2.20 for the larger context of this discussion.
579See section 2.4.2. for further discussion on the concepts meritum de congruo and meritum de condigno.
580Hoc secundum est argumentum huius Epistolae. Considerabis autem hic diligenter, quod velle iustificari ex operibus legis sit abiicere gratiam Dei. Quid quaeso magis impium aut quod horribilius peccatum esse potest, quam abiicere gratiam Dei et non velle iustificari fide in Christum? WA
40a.300.24-27; on Gal. 2.21. Christus Dei filius ex mera gratia et misericordia nos iustificavit. Ergo lex non potuit hoc praestare. Si enim potuisset, stulte egisset Christus, quod seipsum tradidisset pro peccatis nostris, ut per hoc iustificaremur. Concludimus igitur neque merito congrui aut condigni, neque cruce aut afflictionibus, neque ipsa lege, sed sola fide in Christum nos iustificari. WA 40a 304.32, 40a.305.9-13; on Gal. 2.21. On similar lines, Luther warns of the danger of letting reason rule outside of its proper sphere, that is, in the issue of justification. Reason thinks that righteousness can be found by the law, and thus rejects Christ and the true Christian righteousness in him. See WA 40a.305.30-33, 306.13-31,
307.14-21; on Gal. 2.21.
581Moses longe ante praedixerat: 'Prophetam de gente tua et de fratribus tuis suscitabit tibi Dominus Deus tuus, HUNC audies', Quasi dicat: hunc unum et praeterea neminem. Hoc bene intellexerunt Patres, quia nemo potuit maiora et sublimiora docere quam ipse Moses, qui summas leges de summis et maximis rebus tulerat, Ut est Decalogus, praesertim primum praeceptum … Et tamen venire debebat alius Doctor, scilicet Christus qui longe aliquid maius et melius summis istis legibus docturus erat, nempe gratiam et remissionem peccatorum. WA 40a.456.27-32, 40a.456.35, 40a.457.10-11; on Gal. 3.14.
Luther also contrasts works done with or without Christ in his comment on Gal. 3.14. According to Luther's concept, a work is only holy if the root and the motive is holy, in other words, if one has Christ through faith. Only works done on the ground of faith, therefore, fulfil God's requirement.582
Bornkamm further specifies that even the activity of the believers through their union with Christ is not the ground for one's justification; instead, it is the work of Christ alone.583 There is no uniting of the two ways to salvation, the law or Christ.
Either one has to stay with all the law of Moses and to attempt salvation through it (which is impossible), or to have nothing of the law, and to have Christ.584
4.1.1.4. Faith vs. Love / Works / Reason We turn now to those instances where Luther focuses on the means of justification, namely faith alone, in contrast to the view which attributes justification to faith formed by love (fides charitate formata),585 or to works of the law. Peter Manns' treatment of the concept of the absolute and incarnate faith (fides absoluta – fides incarnata) in Luther's Galatians is interesting in this respect. Manns considers that Luther's statements on the role of good works in justification are 'ambiguous' and Eadem consequentia, qua teneris ad Circuncisionem, teneris etiam ad totam legem. Servare autem totam legem, nihil aliud est quam facto ostendere, quod Christus nondum venerit. Si hoc verum est, observari debent omnes Iudaicae caeremoniae et leges de cibis, locis, temporibus et adhuc exspectandus est
Christus, qui antiquato Iudaeorum Regno et Sacerdotio instituat novum Regnum per totum orbem terrarum. Sed tota Scriptura testatur et res ipsa indicat Christum iam venisse, sua morte Genus humanum redemisse, legem abrogasse et omnia, quae omnes Prophetae de eo praedixerunt, adimplesse. Ergo sublata lege gratiam et veritatem donavit. Non igitur lex neque opera eius, sed fides in Christum, qui iam venit, iustificat. WA 40b.17.20-30; on Gal. 5.3.
582WA 40a.457.16-29; on Gal. 3.14. Similarly, Christ is Lord and King over all Scripture and its works.
Therefore, if someone defends righteousness by works, one ought to show who is central in Scripture Christ, the King of Scripture - and leave the others to the servant (Scripture) and let them stay with the few passages defending works. Correctly seen, however, Scripture presents Christ as the only way to salvation as against all human works, and the passages defending works are, in reality, in harmony with righteousness by faith. WA 40a.458.19-459.24; on Gal. 3.14.
583Illi [Sophistae] haec Pauli verba invertunt et hoc modo legunt: Nos dileximus Christum et tradidimus nosipsos pro eo. Verum impii homines, frustra inflati sensu carnis suae, dum somniant et nugantur se facere quod in se est, se diligere Deum, sese tradere pro Christo, abolent Evangelium ac rident, negant, blasphemant, conspuunt et conculcant Christum, quia verbis fatentur eum esse iustificatorem et
Salvatorem, re vera tamen vim iustificandi et salvandi illi detrahunt ac eam tribuunt suis electitiis cultibus. Hoc vivere est non in fide filii Dei, sed in propriis iustitiis et operibus. WA 40a.291.20-28; on Quare Paulus non nos, sed Christum incepisse hic dicit. 'Ipse dilexit me inquit', 'et tradidit semetipsum pro me', Quasi dicat: Non invenit in me bonam voluntatem et intellectum rectum, sed ipse misertus est mei… WA 40a.294.23-25; on Gal. 2.20.
584Est igitur finalis haec conclusio: Aut Christum amitte, aut iusticiam legis. Si Christum retines, iustus es coram Deo, Si legem, Christus nihil tibi prodest, debitor es totius legis servandae habesque [5. Mose 27,
26] sententiam tuam: 'Maledictus omnis, qui non' etc. WA 40b.20. 18-21; on Gal. 5.3-4. See also WA 585See also section 5.1.1.2.
'contradictory'.586 On the one hand Manns congratulates Luther for his rebuttal of righteousness by works while on the other Manns considers it unfortunate that Luther was unable to define how 'free cooperation' and good works can have 'true causality and necessity for salvation'.587 Nevertheless, Manns sees openness in Luther's presentation of the positive role of good works for believers in the illustration of the incarnate Christ / fides incarnata.588
Luther's definition of faith is important for the discussion in this section. Luther explains faith as a gift of God, as God's work within human hearts.
Faith is also defined by Luther as confidence of the heart (fiducia cordis) as against the scholastic understanding of faith as 'an idle quality or an empty husk' (otiosa qualitas vel vacua silicua) in the soul. Luther elucidates,
'Therefore Christian faith is not an idle quality or an empty husk in the heart, which may exist in a state of mortal sin until love comes along to make it alive. But if it is true faith, it is a sure trust and firm acceptance in the heart. … Thus faith is a sort of knowledge or darkness that nothing can see. … Therefore our "formal righteousness" is not a love that informs faith; but it is faith itself, a cloud in our hearts, that is, trust in a thing we do not see, in Christ, who is present especially when He cannot be seen.'589
Faith has Christ as its only object, in accordance with the concept solus Christus.
Faith justifies, not on account of itself, but on account of the Christ it apprehends.590
On similar lines, faith alone (sola fide) justifies, and the opposing point of view according to which faith plus love or faith plus works justifies, is rejected.591
586Manns 1970: 125. Manns' article originally appeared five years earlier in the publication Reformata Reformanda vol. 1. See bibliography for detail.
587Manns 1970: 131. See also Manns 1970: 125-126.
588See below for a brief discussion on Luther's illustration of the two natures of Christ (Christ as divine and Christ as incarnate). Manns 1970: 126-131.
589Quare fides Christiana non est otiosa qualitas vel vacua siliqua in corde quae possit exsistere in peccato mortali, donec charitas accedat et eam vivificet, Sed si est vera fides, est quaedam certa fiducia cordis et firmus assensus quo Christus apprehenditur, Sic ut Christus sit obiectum fidei, imo non obiectum, sed, ut ita dicam, in ipsa fide Christus adest. Fides ergo est cognitio quaedam vel tenebra quae nihil videt, Et tamen in istis tenebris Christus fide apprehensus sedet, Quemadmodum Deus in Sinai et in Templo sedebat in medio tenebrarum. Est ergo formalis nostra iustitia non charitas informans fidem, sed ipsa fides et nebula cordis, hoc est, fiducia in rem quam non videmus, hoc est, in Christum qui, ut maxime non videatur, tamen praesens est. Iustificat ergo fides, quia apprehendit et possidet istum thesaurum, scilicet Christum praesentem. Sed quo modo praesens sit, non est cogitabile, quia sunt tenebrae, ut dixi. Ubi ergo vera fiducia cordis est, ibi adest Christus in ipsa nebula et fide. WA
40a.228.31-229.25, on Gal. 2.16.
590Strelow draws attention to apprehendere (usually translated as 'grasp' or 'to take hold of' in Luther's Works) as Luther's favourite term for describing the relationship between faith and Christ in his
Galatians. Strelow also notes the terms fiducia (trust) and cognitio (knowledge). Luther uses the latter in the context of the concept of faith as knowing in darkness, and apprehending Christ. See the quote to Luther in the footnote above, which includes all these three terms. See Strelow 1991: 99-102.
591Est autem veritas Evangelii, quod iustitia nostra est ex sola fide, sine operibus legis. Falsitas seu depravatio Evangelii est, quod fide iustificemur, sed non sine operibus legis. Hac conditione annexa
Pseudoapostoli praedicaverunt Evangelium. Sophistae nostri idem docuerunt Quod scilicet in Christum Commenting on Gal. 3.11-12 Luther argues against a related concept of the 'sophists' (sophistae), according to which faith alone (sola fide) does not justify but that it must be formed by love (fides charitate formata). Luther explains that he could accept the notion if the distinction was made between a false or counterfeit faith (falsam seu fictam fidem) and a formed faith (fides formata).592
In this case, a formed faith (fides formata) would be understood theologically, assigning the justifying function to faith, not to love. However, in reality, the 'sophists' did not understand an 'unformed faith' (fides non formata) as a false faith, but used the term to describe the nature of faith without love. According to them an 'unformed faith' could even coexist with mortal sin. Unless it was formed by love, it could not justify.593 This notion Luther rejects, and affirms that faith alone justifies, without love and without works of the law.594
However, Luther adds that also according to his understanding, faith does not remain alone or idle. Drawing an interesting parallel with the two natures of Christ, Luther maintains that just as the divine Christ does not remain in heaven, but becomes a man, so faith does not remain alone but becomes active in works.595 Commenting on Gal 5.6 (…sed fides per charitatem efficax), Luther stresses that in this context love is not discussed as a means to achieve justification,596 but in its proper sphere, in daily life where the believers work their faith out in performing deeds of love toward one's neighbour.597 In this situation sit credendum fidemque esse fundamentum salutis, sed eam non iustificare, nisi formata sit charitate.
Haec non est veritas, sed fucus et simulatio Evangelii. Verum autem Evangelium est, quod opera aut charitas non est ornatus seu perfectio fidei, Sed quod fides per se est donum Dei et opus divinum in corde, quod ideo iustificat, quia apprehendit ipsum Christum Salvatorem. Ratio humana obiectum habet legem: hoc feci, hoc non feci. Fides autem, quando in proprio suo officio est, nullum prorsus aliud obiectum habet quam Iesum Christum filium Dei, traditum pro peccatis mundi. WA 40a.163.28,
40a.164.14-24; on Gal. 2.4-5. See also WA 40a.251.27-37 and WA 40a.254.26-35, 255.15-35; on Gal.
592Although Luther does not refer to the Scripture passage here, he appears to be alluding to James 2.19, where a false faith is discussed, namely the faith, which even demons have recognising God's existence.
593See WA 40a.421.14-31, 422.13-31, 423.14-19; on Gal. 3.11.
594Ex clarissimo igitur testimonio Prophetae argumentatur Paulus, quod simpliciter nemini contingat iustificatio et vita coram Deo nisi credenti, qui iustitiam et vitam consequitur sine lege et dilectione ex fide. WA 40a.424.20-22; on Gal. 3.12.
595Quare fides perpetuo iustificat et vivificat, et tamen non manet sola, id est, otiosa. Non quod non sola in suo gradu et officio maneat, quia perpetuo sola iustificat, sed incarnatur et fit homo, hoc est, non est et manet otiosa vel sine charitate. Sic Christus secundum divinitatem et substantia vel natura divina et aeterna sine principio, Humanitas vero est natura in tempore creata. Hae duae naturae in Christo sunt inconfusae et impermixtae et utriusque proprium est distincte intelligendum. WA 40a 427.11-17, on Gal.
3.12. See also WA 40a 427.31, 428.9-11; on Gal. 3.12. See section 4.3 on good works for further discussion.
596Opera fieri dicit ex fide per Charitatem, non iustificari hominem per Charitatem. WA 40b.35.24-25, on 597These include deeds such as wearing rags, and eating or not eating certain foods. See WA 40b.38.2231, on Gal. 5.6. For further discussion, see section 4.3 on good works. faith is the master and love the tool.598 Faith, inwardly understood, is faith in God who justifies, while outwardly perceived, faith is love or good works toward one's neighbour.599
It is therefore difficult to see in what way Luther's presentation could leave a degree of openness about a positive role for good works within justification, as Manns suggests.600 However, outside of justification, Luther clearly sees their importance.601
In addition to the contrapositioning of faith vs. works / love, Luther draws a contrast between faith and reason in his discussion on Gal. 3.6. Gerhard
Ebeling has given special attention to the relationship of faith and reason in Luther's exposition of this verse, but due to constraints of space, his rather detailed article is not discussed further here.602 Luther states in his exposition of Gal. 3.6 that the Christian ought to kill the reason and, instead, to glorify God by having faith in Him. This is the 'morning and evening sacrifice of the New Testament'.603 Human reason sees it as more rational to try to achieve righteousness with its own resources, i.e. with outward acts of human righteousness, whereas faith gives glory to God – letting him be the Creator of all good and believing in him as the Giver of all righteousness.604 Two further concepts, those of simul iustus et peccator and 598Non enim dicit: Charitas est efficax, Sed: 'Fides est efficax', Non: Charitas operatur, sed: 'fides operatur'. Charitatem vero facit fidei velut instrumentum, per quod operetur.WA 40b.36.12-14, on Gal.
599Nam de fideseu interna natura, vi et usu fidei supra disputavit, ubi eam docuit esse iusticiam seu potius iustificationem coram Deo. Hic coniungit Charitati et operibus, id est, de eius externo officio loquitur.
Hic dicit eam esse impultricem et effectricem bonorum operum seu Charitatis erga proximum. WA 40b.38.6-10, on Gal. 5.6.
600Manns 1970: 126-131.
601See section 4.4. for further discussion.
602Ebeling goes through sixteen concepts picked out of Luther's discussion of the theme faith vs. reason in Gal. 3.6 (quid fides, virtus fidei, dare gloriam Deo, reputare, facere Deo – facere Deum, fides creatrix divinitatis, non in persona sed in nobis, creatrix, Divinitas, fides, fides iustificans, fides abstracta – fides concreta, omnipotentia – omniinfirmitas, Deus loquens, verbum Dei – secundum rationem: diaboli verbum, sacrificium rationis). For further discussion of each of these concepts, see Ebeling 1979: 97-135.
See also footnote 604 for further discussion of Ebeling's article.
603Quare, ut dixi, quilibet Christianus summus est Pontifex, quia primum offert et mactat suam rationem et sensum carnis, Deinde tribuit Deo gloriam, quod sit iustus, verax, patiens, miserator et misericors.
Hocque est iuge illud sacrificium vespertinum et matutinum in novo Testamento, Vespertinum: mortificare rationem, Matutinum: glorificare Deum. WA 40a.370.12-16, on Gal. 3.6. See also WA
40a.362.15-363.15, on Gal. 3.6.
604See e.g. WA 40a.360.17-361.18, WA 40a.361.28-362.14 and WA 40a.362.28-363.15, on Gal. 3.6.
Ebeling underlines Luther's striking statement on faith as the creator of divinity, creatrix divinitatis, within believers and discusses this as a concept of its own. (Ebeling primarily uses the shorthand notes of Luther's lectures 1531 rather than the written commentary of 1535.) See WA 40a.360.5-10, on Gal. 3.6 and Ebeling 1979: 106-113. In light of the whole discussion of Luther surrounding his reference to faith as creatrix divinitatis, this statement of Luther's emerges rather as an attention grabbing accentuation of the fact that faith alone gives glory to God (in that what is due to God is given him by faith), rather than as being an independent theological concept of faith as the creator of divinity. This is supported by the fact that Luther does not elucidate the concept of faith as the creator of divinity further, apart from the imputation of Christ's righteousness are significant in this context.605 God counts the faith of believers in Christ as righteousness (reputare), even though both faith and the believers' lives are imperfect, and some sins remain in them (simul iustus et peccator). In a formal sense, Luther explains, the righteousness which faith grasps is outside of the human (iustitia aliena), in God's imputation (imputatione) and grace alone. How this can be is divine theology, and something entirely outside the sphere of the understanding of human reason.606
4.1.1.5. Abraham of Faith vs. Abraham of Works Our final example of Luther's images of two kinds of righteousness, focuses on the Abraham of procreation vs. the Abraham of faith in Gal. 3.7-9.607 It seems unfortunate that Juhani Forsberg, who has written an insightful work on Luther's theology on Abraham, has given only scant attention to this passage in the part of his work dealing with Luther's Galatians.608 Here, Luther compares the two sons of short paragraph where Luther uses this phrase. Instead, he continues his discussion on faith as giving the glory to God which he is due to receive as contrasted to human reason, which robs God of the glory he is due because it attempts to attain justification by human works. See WA 40a.359.17-373.17, on Gal. 3.6.
Ebeling's emphasis on this statement of Luther's would have found more support if Luther would have explained this concept in more detail, which, however, he does not do. Further, though the statement ut ita dicam ('if I may put it this way') (WA 40a.360.24), immediately preceding Luther's allusion to faith as creatrix divinitatis (the creator of divinity), appears only in the written commentary, and not in the shorthand notes, it nevertheless lends some further support to the view that Luther saw this statement rather as an illustration than as a substantial concept of its own (as Luther gave his explicit approval for the text of the written commentary of 1535). Althaus has also given some attention to these 'bold statements' (Althaus 1966: 46) in Luther. Althaus' opinion appears to do justice to the whole context of the passage, that is, faith is creatrix divinitatis only in the sense that God is allowed to be our personal
God, that we 'let him be our God in faith' (Althaus 1966: 46). God is God independent of us, and without our faith. Thus this corresponds closely with Luther's comment on the Lord's prayer in his Kleine
Katechismus that, while God's name is holy despite us, we pray for His name to be holy also in us.
Luther states, 'Gottes name ist zwar an yhm heilig, Aber wir bitten ynn diesem gebet, das er bey uns auch heilig werde.' WA 30a.300.2-4.
605See the discussion of these concepts, in the context of the concepts of faith vs. reason, in WA 40a.363.28-373.17, on Gal. 3.6.
606Et hic in alio prorsus mundo extra rationem sumus, ubi non disputatur, quid nos facere debeamus, quo genere operum gratiam et remissionem peccatorum mereamur, sed hic sumus in divina Theologia, ubi audimus hoc Evangelium, quod Christus pro nobis mortuus sit quodque hoc credentes reputemur iusti, manentibus nihilominus in nobis peccatis et quidem grandibus. WA 40a.371.21-25, on Gal. 3.6.
607Luther's discussion on Abraham from a human perspective vs. a perspective of faith is lengthy and thus seems to have held special importance for Luther. That is why it is included here as a separate section. See WA 40a.373.18-391.26.; on Gal. 3.7-9.
608See Forsberg 1985: 73-83. Forsberg sees it important to look at Luther's theology on Abraham in his Galatians in light of the believer's union with Christ. Christ's indwelling within the believer is not, however, discussed by Luther in reference to Abraham in any explicit detail. Forsberg's linking of Luther's theology on Abraham to the believer's union with Christ is connected to the fact that he sees
Luther's reference to faith as creatrix divinitatis (Gal. 3.6), and hence the presence of God (Gegenwart Gottes) as central to Luther's understanding of justification and the theology of Abraham in his
Galatians, on similar lines with Ebeling. Compare Forsberg 1985: 74-77 with Ebeling 1979: 106-113.
(See footnote 604 for further discussion on Ebeling's view on faith as creatrix divinitatis.) Thus Forsberg Abraham, Ishmael and Isaac, one born from Abraham in the natural way, and the other by the promise of God. Accordingly, Abraham seen from a human perspective
(i.e. Abraham of procreation and of works) is the father of those who endeavour to achieve justification by works while Abraham elected and justified, the one trusting in the promise of God, is the father of those who believe.609 The same concept is also illustrated in the contrast between those who attempt to imitate Christ and follow his example (represented by Abraham of works) and those who want to have
Christ for blessing and salvation (represented by Abraham the believer).610 Luther summarises, 'For us to be righteous in the sight of God a price far higher than human righteousness or the righteousness of the Law is required. Here we must have Christ to bless and save us, just as Abraham had Him as his Blesser and Savior. How? Not through works but through faith. … Here Paul is dealing with Christ who redeems and Abraham who has faith, not with Christ the example and Abraham who does works.'611 looks back to Luther's discussion on union with Christ (Gal. 2.16, 2.20) rather than looking at the immediate context of Gal. 3.6-9 to complete the picture of Luther's discussion. The position taken in this study is that Luther's discussion on Abraham does not necessitate looking back to the concept of Christ's indwelling within the believer. This is supported by the fact that Luther himself does not do so. Instead,
Luther introduces in this passage one more illustration of the contrast between two kinds of righteousness, a) that of the Abraham of faith vs. the Abraham of works in the discussion on Gal. 3.7-9
(WA 40a.373.18-391.26), and yet another image in b) the contradistinction of works done on the grounds of faith vs. works done in an attempt to be justified through them when discussing Gal. 3.10. The latter image is perceptively treated by Forsberg, too. See Forsberg 1985: 80-82. See also section 4.3.2. for further discussion on Luther's comment on Gal. 3.10.
609Ergo qui vult esse filius credentis Abrahae, oportet ut et ipse credat; Alioqui non est filius electi, accepti et iustificati Abrahae, sed tantum generantis, Qui nihil aliud est quam homo in peccatis conceptus, natus et constitutus, sine remissione peccatorum, sine fide, sine Spiritu sancto, ut alius homo,
Ergo damnatus. WA 40a.375.13-17; on Gal. 3.7. In the context of contrasting the Abraham of faith with the Abraham of works, faith is compared to reason. Following the dictates of reason, humans choose self-chosen works such as the monks did, while faith perceives God correctly, seeing his mercy and trusting in Christ for salvation. In this context, Luther gives a contemporary example of baptism. 'The fanatics' (phanatici) who argue that one must reach the age of reason and perform good deeds before baptism, represent righteousness of works. By way of contrast, those who maintain baptism as a sign of God's good will towards humans, in which the infant is given righteousness and salvation, maintain righteousness by faith. See WA 40a.376.23-28,377.11-20; on Gal. 3.7.
610See WA 389.12-390.16; on Gal. 3.9. Also, the fact that the promise was given to Abraham 430 years earlier than the law, exemplifies the superiority of righteousness by faith over righteousness by the law.
611Ad hoc enim, ut iusti simus coram Deo, longe maius pretium requiritur, quam est aut iustitia humana aut Legis. Hic Christum habere nos oportet qui benedicat et salvet nos, ut Abraham eum habuit
Benedictorem et Salvatorem. Quomodo? Non per opera, sed per fidem. Ideo longe aliud est Abraham credens quam operans, longe aliud est Christus benedicens et redimens quam exemplum. Agit autem hic
Paulus de Christo redimente et Abraham credente, non de Christo exemplo et Abraham operante. WA 40a.390.13-20, on Gal. 3.9. In the context of contrasting the Abraham of faith with the Abraham of works, Luther also compares faith to reason. Following the dictates of reason, humans choose selfchosen works such as the monks did, while faith perceives God correctly, seeing his mercy and trusting in Christ for salvation. See WA 40a.381.13-25; on Gal. 3.8. Luther gives a contemporary example of baptism in this context. The Anabaptists who argue that one must reach the age of reason and perform
Luther further affirms that justification happened in the same manner for both the patriarchs of the Old Testament and the people of the New Testament, the former being justified by their faith in the Saviour yet to come and the latter by faith in Christ who has already come.612 Both groups needed the hearing of the Word of the gospel, Abraham in the promise and the present-day believers through the ministry of the Word in the church.613 Then, receiving the gospel by faith, the believers, whether those of the Old or the New Testaments, are counted righteous before God and receive the blessing of finding a merciful God who forgives their sin.614
4.1.2. Role of Christ in Justification615 Hans Thimme has drawn attention to the central importance of the work of Christ to the believer in their personal tribulations (Anfechtungen) in Luther's Galatians.616 good deeds before baptism represent righteousness by works. By way of contrast, those who maintain baptism as a sign of God's good will towards humans, in which the infant is given righteousness and salvation, maintain righteousness by faith.
Kleinknecht, commenting on Luther's portrayal of Christ as the fulfilment of the promises of the Old Testament, draws attention to the concept of Christ as having become a curse for all.
'Der Verheissene konnte freilich nur so der Segenbringer für alle warden, dass er den Fluch aller auf sich nahm.' Kleinknecht 1981: 14. See a closely related discussion on Christ as the greatest sinner (maximus peccator) in section 4.1.1.3.
612Abraham et alii patres tum nos, fide in Christum iustificamur, illi fide in futurum, nos in praesentem Christum… WA 40a.379.30-32; on Gal. 3.7. Forsberg draws attention to the fact that for Luther, it is possible also for people in the present day to be in a state where Christ has not yet existentially come for them, that is, if they are yet unbelieving. Forsberg states, 'Andererseits ist Christus auch für uns "der kommende Erlöser". Sozusagen "existentiell" gesehen ist Christus für die Gläubigen anwesend und schon gekommen, während er für die Ungläubigen noch nicht gekommen und anwesend ist' (Forsberg
613This is connected to Luther's view according to which believers in Old Testament times had the gospel Word only in written form, whereas since the coming of Christ, the spoken Word of the gospel has a primary role. Thus Luther calls the New Testament church a 'mouth-house, not a pen-house'
(mundhaws, nit eyn fedderhaws). See also section 4.6.3. for further discussion on the task of ministry and the spoken Word. Luther states, 'Datzu stymmet das worttle Bethphage, wilchs auff deutsch, alss ettlich sagen, heyst mundhawss denn Paulus Ro. 1. sprict, das Euangelium sey tzuvor ynn der heyligen schrifft vorsprochen, aber es ward nit mundlich und offetlich predigt, biss das Christus kam and sandte die
Apostelln auss. Darumb ist die kirch eyn mundhawss, nit eyn tedderhawss.' WA 10.1.2.48.1-5, Das Euangelium am ersten sontag des Advents Matthei .xxi, 1522. See also Elenius 2005: 115.
614Quare benedici Gentes est eis donari iustitiam et reputari eas iustas, Quod non fit nisi per Evangelium.
Nam Abraham nulla alia ratione iustificatus est quam audito verbo promissionis, benedictionis et gratiae.
Sicut igitur imputatio iustitiae contigit Abrahae per auditum fidei, sic et omnibus Gentibus contigit et adhuc contingit. WA 40a.387.14-19; on Gal. 3.9. See the larger context of this passage in WA
40a.387.13-388.24, on Gal. 3.9.
615It should be noted once more that the division into sections is somewhat arbitrary. For instance, the themes of the union with Christ and the concept of Christ as 'given', and Christ's death in contrast to righteousness by works could have been discussed here. However, these themes fit better under the overall heading of Christian righteousness contrasted with righteousness by works.
616Thimme states, referring to the Anfechtungsmächten (the powers of the law, death, devil and sin), 'In starrer Kompaktheit wird Christus den Anfechtungsmächten gegenüberstellt. … Der Betrug des Teufels bzw. des Gesetzes spielt wieder eine grosse Rolle. Gesetz und Tod vergreifen sich an dem unscheinbaren
Jesus und gehen an dessen Gottheit zugrunde. Oder ein ebenso massiv ausgeführtes Bild für den gleichen Marc Lienhard, for his part, points to Christ's mediation, suffering of God's wrath, fulfilment of the law and battling against the powers which oppress the human as central in Luther's discussion of Christ's salvific work in his Galatians.617 For the purposes of this study, we will to focus on four specific illustrations of Luther's explaining from different angles Christ's role in justification, a) Christ as the Lawgiver vs. Saviour, b) Christ as the Greatest Sinner (maximus peccator), c) Christ as having been given 'for us' (pro nobis) and d) Christus Victor, the themes which also reflect, at least to some extent, the concerns raised by Thimme and Lienhard.
Commenting on Gal. 4.4-5, Luther discusses Christ's relationship to the law. Referring to the mediaeval notion of Christ as the new Lawgiver, who requires a perfect imitation of his example, Luther describes his continual personal struggle to get over this concept. Christ, he asserts, is not a new Lawgiver but a Comforter safeguarding the believer from the terrors of the law. In fact, Christ is the Killer of the law. Christ battled with the law and as a result, the law killed Christ.
However, as it did this to the innocent Christ, without a legitimate reason, law committed an unpardonable sin, and Christ killed the law in turn. Thus, Christ conquered the law in himself passively by making himself its servant. He did not only do it in himself, but also did this in the person of the believer, making the believer a conqueror of the law as well. Now the law has no right to reign in the conscience, accusing the sinner. Thus, Christ is a Redeemer and Comforter in his role as a Conqueror over the law (Christus Victor).618 On similar lines, on Gal. 5.8,
Luther warns of an image of a false Christ, which the devil tries to create for the believer's conscience, presenting him as a Taskmaster and an Accuser, instead of the gentle and lowly Saviour and Comforter that he truly is. Luther affirms,
'Here the troubled mind should be encouraged in the manner in which Paul encouraged the Galatians, namely, by ... the Word of the Gospel, which portrays Christ, not as an accuser or a harsh taskmaster but as "gentle and lowly in heart", as a merciful Savior and Comforter.'619
Further, Luther cautions against seeing Christ as being primarily an Example. For the Christian, Christ is principally a Gift (donum), who swallows up the believer's sin. Only secondly is Christ an example to imitate. Thus for those burdened under Gedanken: Christus nimmt ganz konkret der ganzen Welt Sünden auf seine Schultern, stirbt ihretwegen in tiefster Erniedrigung .. den Martertod, nimmt sie mit sich ins Grab und bringt durch seine
Auferstehung die vita nova des Gläubigen.' See Thimme 1933: 79.
617Lienhard states, 'L'oevre du Christ est ainsi décrite de facon diverse, à la fois sous l'angle de la médiation, le Christ souffrant sous la colère de Dieu et accomplissant la loi, et sous l'angle du combat mené contre les puissances qui oppriment l'homme.' Lienhard 1973: 289.
618The theme of Christus Victor is also implied in this passage. However, in the commentary overall, Christus Victor, although occasionally alluded to, is not a major theme, not even within the role of 619Hic erigendus est ad hunc modum conturbatus animus, quo Paulus Galatas erexit, Nempe istam cogitationem seu persuasionem non esse ex Christo, cum ea pugnet contra verbum Euangelii, quod pingit ipsum Christum non accusatorem, durum exactorem etc., sed mitem, humilem corde, misericordem,
Salvatorem et consolatorem. WA 40b.41.31-42.9, on Gal. 5.8. their sin, one ought to present Christ as a Saviour and a Gift while for those who are smug in their hypocrisy, he ought to be presented as an Example, so that they would not use the gospel as a license for sin.
The other three illustrations of Christ's role in justification, Christ as having been given 'for us' (pro nobis), Christ as the Greatest Sinner (maximus peccator) and Christus Victor are each well presented in Luther's rather lengthy exposition of Gal. 3.13. Lienhard also points to the centrality of this exposition and terms it 'the most important' passage on the work of Christ in Luther's Galatians.620
Luther affirms that Paul's whole emphasis in this verse is on the phrase pro nobis (Gal. 3.13), the importance of which he later accentuates by including it in its Greek form ὑπὲρ ἡμων.621 Similarly, he stresses Christ as having been maximus peccator,
'the greatest thief, murderer, adulterer, robber, desecrator, blasphemer… anywhere in the world', though not in himself, but in stead of humans.622 Luther shows great liking for the concept of Christ as maximus peccator. For him, this is a 'most delightful comfort' (consolatione suavissima) 'the most joyous of all doctrines'
(iucundissima omnium doctrinarum) and 'the most powerful and highest'
(potentissimum et summum) of all arguments.623 The fact that Christ is sin, and that he is this 'for us' (pro nobis) is an especially apt antidote for the concept of righteousness by works. Further, as the Greatest Sinner (maximus peccator), Christ is the satisfaction (satisfactio) for human sin. The fact that Christ is a satisfaction for human sin is meant specifically 'for us' (pro nobis), which is the greatest comfort.
On the same note, Luther also stresses Christ's battle with three 'fierce and mighty tyrants' (atrocissimos et potentissimos Tyrannos), sin, death and the curse. In this confrontation Christ, being divine, was the Victor.624 This victory of Christ is that of the believer, too, and therefore, to the extent Christ reigns in the believers, they have neither sin, death nor curse. Luther calls this the 'chief doctrine of the Christian faith' (praecipuus locus Christianae doctrinae).625 Closely tied with the concepts of Christ as being pro nobis, maximus peccator and Christus Victor, is also the notion of the joyous exchange, or as here, the fortunate exchange (feliciter commutans). Luther states,
620Lienhard calls Luther's comments on Gal. 3.13 'le passage le plus important en ce qui concerne l'oevre du Christ'. Lienhard 1973: 288.
621See a similar discussion of Luther on Gal 1.3 in WA 40.82.30-94.11 on the concept of Christ as having been given pro peccatis nostris.
622Et hoc viderunt omnes Prophetae, quod Christus futurus esset omnium maximus latro, homicida, adulter, fur, sacrilegus, blasphemus etc., quo nullus maior unquam in mundo fuerit, Quia iam non gerit personam suam, Iam non est natus de virgine Dei filius, sed peccator, qui habet et portat peccatum Pauli qui fuit blasphemus, persecutor et violentus; Petri qui negavit Christum; Davidis qui fuit adulter, homicida et blasphemare fecit Gentes nomen Domini; In summa, qui habet et portat omnia omnium peccata in corpore suo. WA 40a.433.26-32, on Gal. 3.13.
623See WA 40a.434.21-22, WA 40a.437.18-27, WA 40a.438.19-31, all on Gal. 3.13.
624See WA 40a.441.29-442.11, on Gal. 3.13.
625See WA 40a.440.26-441.14, on Gal. 3.13.
'By this fortunate exchange with us He took upon Himself our sinful person and granted us His innocent and victorious Person. Clothed and dressed in this, we are freed from the curse of the Law, because Christ
Himself voluntarily became a curse for us.'626
Luther applies this concept both to individuals and to the church.
As Christ's victorious person is given to the believer, the believers are freed from their burden of sin by a simultaneous transfer of their sin onto Christ. Likewise, the church, too, seen in Christ by faith, is completely holy. Without faith, however, it remains in sin.627
4.1.3. Law and Gospel The theme of law and gospel is one of the concepts, which Luther frequently returns to in his Galatians.628 The concept of law and gospel can be understood as a broad theme overlapping and intertwining with other notions.629 Here, however, the discussion is primarily limited to those instances where Luther uses the actual terms gospel and law.
Luther states that the ability to distinguish between gospel and law is the sum of all Christian doctrine.630 Christ has come to transfer humans from the 626Sic feliciter commutans nobiscum suscepit nostram peccatricem et donavit nobis suam innocentem et victricem personam. Hac induti et vestiti liberamur a maledictione legis, quia Christus ipse volens pro nobis factus est Maledictum. WA 40a.443.23-26, on Gal. 3.13.
627In this context, Luther also calls the Christian life the true 'speculative life' (speculativa vita), which is possible by grasping Christ through reason or the intellect illumined by faith. WA 40a.447.15-28, on Gal
628See Appendix 4 for further detail. Law and gospel also emerges as a favourite theme of Luther's in his sermons on Galatians from 1531 onwards. He preaches on the theme at least seven times. See
Kleinknecht's helpful summaries of these sermons in Kleinknecht 1980: 361-408, esp. 361-362, 386387. The sermons can be found in WA 36.8-23, WA 36.24-42, WA 41.493-497, WA 41.658-662, WA
46.119-123, WA 47.678-685, WA 49.652-660 and WA 51.42-49.
629For instance, Hesselink treats the theme of law and gospel in a wider sense in his examination of this concept in Luther's Galatians including aspects of other concepts linked with justification as well as law and good works in his discussion in addition to the specific law and gospel relationship / contrast. See
Hesselink 1984: 71-79. Vappula's MA thesis (1979) on Luther's position on the law and the gospel in his commentary on Galatians 1531/35 also represents this kind of very wide understanding of the two concepts. Markula's MA thesis (1979), for its part, presents a closely related study, dealing with the relationship of the law to the righteousness of faith in Luther's commentary on Galatians. His study is interesting in that it insightfully reflects the conclusions of the Lundian school of Luther interpretation, including a consideration of the relationship between the law and the gospel. See e.g. Markula 1979:
131-134. See also Mannermaa's review of the thesis on the last page of Markula's work.
630Luther on Gal. 2.14. Luther also draws attention to the distinction between the law and the gospel in his two sermons on Galatians preached soon after the closure of his Galatians lectures. Luther here points out a difference between the law and the gospel in that while the law requires humans to love one's neighbour and do other good works, the gospel is completely God's work where humans do nothing.
Dilige proximum, benefac illi &c. Das heyst das gesecz abgeczirckelt ab Euangelio. Das uns heyst thun, Euangelion nihil mandat et exigit, Es heyst nur nhemen und lassen geben, scilicet promissione dei. Das schencke ich dyr, do kan ich nichts zw thun, WA 36.14.11-14, Vesperi Epistola ad Gal. 3 (Gal. 3.23-29), law to the gospel, from wrath to grace, from sin to righteousness and from death to life.631 The relationship between law and gospel is also illustrated in Luther's example taken from Abraham's taking of Isaac to be sacrificed. According to this example, the believer must learn to keep the ass (the law) in the valley and the conscience on the mount in the gospel.632 The law has its proper sphere of influence on earth in civil affairs while the Christian conscience ought to remain in heaven with Christ.633
Luther further explains the superiority of the gospel over the law in his exposition of a duel between the law and the gospel in Gal. 3.16-18. Luther demonstrates, following Paul's reasoning, that since the promise of God was given
430 years before the law, the gospel is above the law and thus conquers the law.
Accordingly, in a struggle of conscience one may tell 'lady law' that she comes 430 years too late.634
However, in Christian experience, law and gospel stay together, although in themselves, as doctrine, they must be kept far apart. This is demonstrated in Luther's notion on appropriate time periods for the law and the gospel. The time period for the law is superceded by that of the gospel in two ways, first by the coming of Christ to the earth and second, by Christ's coming to the believers in Spirit. The togetherness vs. contrast between the law and gospel is further clarified in Luther's explanation of the ongoing function of the law for the believer. The law terrifies by underlining the believers' sinfulness and keeps the flesh under control, while the gospel brings comfort to the conscience and directs the believer's faith to Christ. As much as believers still live under the flesh, they therefore need the law, and as much as they have faith in Christ, the law is abrogated for them.
Luther again illustrates the togetherness and contrast between the law and the gospel in his analogy of the boy and his schoolmaster. As long as a schoolboy is under the control of a schoolmaster, he hates the schoolmaster.
1 January 1532. See WA 36.8.17-42.37 for the text of both sermons on the law and the gospel Luther preached in 1532.
631On Gal. 1.6, similarly also on 3.16.
632Commenting on Gal. 2.18, Luther refers to commandments in the gospel, which nevertheless are not the gospel, but appendices to it. Quod autem praecepta in Evangelio reperiuntur, ista non sunt
Evangelium, sed expositiones legis et appendices Evangelii. WA 40a.260.13-14, on Gal. 2.17.
633See Luther on Gal 2.14. Interestingly, after having treated the concept of law and gospel quite extensively in his comments on Gal. 3.16-18, Luther concludes that the most important part of the epistle is over. See WA 40a.473.20-23, on Gal. 3.18. Having concluded the first two chapters of Galatians and having begun lecturing on Gal. 3.1, Luther had stated that Paul has now arrived at the middle of his proceedings (in media illa actione). WA 40a.309.14. However, later Luther says that he has only come to the conclusion of the main argument in the epistle at Gal. 4.8-9 or even only at Gal. 5.12. See WA
40a.600.25-26, on Gal. 4.8-9 and WA40b.59.20-30, on Gal. 5.12.
634Luther also points out 'the most effective and the most important' (principale et efficacissimum) argument in favour of the doctrine of justification, is the fact that promise is not the law. Since God has promised justification through the promise, it is not by the law. See WA 40a.470.24-471.26, on Gal.
However, as soon as he has finished the training, is freed and has earned his inheritance, he realises how needful the discipline was. In the same way, the whippings of the law prepare the believer for faith in Christ. Then, at the time when the believer enters under the gospel and is justified by faith alone, the jurisdiction of the law comes to an end.
The last image of gospel and law addressed here comes from Luther's discussion on the two covenants on Gal. 4.25, represented alternatively by Hagar and Sarah, Mt. Sinai and the free Jerusalem above.635 The first covenant, the old one, is a physical and conditional covenant, which keeps its subjects in doubt of their status with God and corresponds to Mt. Sinai. The new covenant, on the other hand, represented by Sarah and the new Jerusalem, is a covenant of promise, unconditional and based on faith.636
4.1.4. Christian Liberty Luther's position on Christian liberty is examined in three parts, first as a freedom from the law, second as presented in Luther's portrayal of three variant kinds of freedom and third, in Luther's contrast drawn between Christian liberty and licence.
Christian freedom, as a freedom from the law, is closely tied with the concept of the abrogation of the law for Christians. This freedom was jeopardized when Peter accepted a ceremonial observance as being necessary, namely that of the Jewish regulations for food637 and this imposed limitation on the consciences of Christians, Luther affirms, was strongly rejected by Paul.638 Luther further explains Christian freedom as a freedom from the law in the contrast between the old husband, the law and Sarah, the barren mother of the believers. The fact that the law (the old husband) has been abrogated and that the church (Sarah) is barren, without works or the law, is an offence to all the wisdom of human flesh
(contra omnem Sapientiam carnis). For believers, however, this is an important comfort, since the 'terrors and troubles' (terriribus et vexationibus) of the law cannot oppress them.639
635This could perhaps been discussed under the heading of the relationship between the Old and New Testaments. However, as Luther's discussion of the two covenants is fairly short, it appears that it would not have provided sufficient material for a section of its own. For comparison, see Calvin's discussion on the relationship between the Old and New Testaments in section 5.1.3.
636WA 40a.658.21-659.15, on Gal. 4.25. The patriarchs of the Old Testament, despite the nature of the old covenant, put their faith in God's promise and therefore trusted in the Christ to come. See WA
40a.341.26-32 on Gal. 3.2. and the larger context of the discussion in WA 40a.339.20-341.32, on Gal.
637WA 40a.210.22-211.31, on Gal. 2.14.
638Ibi vides peccatum Petri, quod Paulus diligenter describit. Non accusat in eo malitiam vel ignorantiam sed infirmitatem. … Quia vero se subtrahit et data opera vitat cibos quos prius edit, certissimum signum est, manducantes contra legem peccare, abstinentes vero a cibis in lege prohibitis iustificari. WA
40a.199.19-20, 199.29-200.11-12, on Gal. 2.12.
639Porro, quia iste locus etiam de abrogatione legis et de libertate Christiana loquitur, diligenter observandus est. ... Valde enim prodest ad confirmandam doctrinam nostram de fide et ad parandam
Commenting on Gal. 5.1, Luther depicts three kinds of freedom.
First, there is a political freedom of the land and second, a freedom with regard to the human flesh, that of doing what one desires. The third kind of freedom, the theological or spiritual freedom, is the true Christian freedom. This spiritual freedom is again of two kinds. On the one hand, it is freedom from God's wrath and on the other, freedom from the terrors of the law, sin and death.640 If the Christian were to fully understand this doctrine of Christian liberty, they would be completely kept from sin, law, death and the devil.641
Luther illustrates the contrast and distinction between Christian liberty and licence in his comments on Gal. 5.13. He firstly reminds the reader that the Christian is completely free, and above all law.642 Nevertheless, as Christian freedom is preached, there are dangers on two sides. On the one hand, if Christian freedom is not propagated, no one will be saved. On the other, if it is proclaimed, people become smug and lazy, using liberty as a pretext for the indulgence of the flesh.643 Luther affirms that the vast majority of people use Christian liberty precisely in this way. Despite this, for the sake of the few, who gain a liberty of conscience before God through an understanding of the gospel and the freedom it gives, the preaching and teaching of Christian freedom is well worth the effort. On the other hand, one must rebuke the wicked and the smug and testify to them that they are demonstrating that they do not have the true Christian freedom. Christians, too, whose conscience enjoys full freedom and comfort before God, need to remember to keep their flesh bound under the law.644 certam consolationem conscientiarum, praesertim in seriis pavoribus, si sciamus legem esse abrogatam.
... Idem docet hic locus Esaiae de libera matre generante liberos, scilicet abrogatam esse totam legem credentibus in Christum cum omnibus suis terroribus et vexationibus. ... Si sola gratia seu fides in Christum iustificat, ergo tota lex simpliciter abrogata est. ... hoc est, non habet discipulos, non applauditur ei, quia praedicat verbum crucis de Christo crucifixo etc. contra omnem Sapientiam carnis.
WA 40a.669.32-670.12, 670.15-17,20-22, 674.11-12,14-16, on Gal. 4.27.
640WA 40b.2.28-4.25, on Gal. 5.1.
641Ideo libertas illa, quam Christus nobis peperit, non tam cito creditur, quam nominatur. Sic certa a firma fide apprehendi posset, nullus furor aut terror mundi, legis, peccati, mortis, diaboli etc. tam magnus esse posset, qui non statim, ceu scintilla a mari, ab ea absorberetur. WA 40b.4.32-5.9, on Gal. 5.1. Luther further stresses that Christians are free, because they are altogether acceptable to God, and if there is any sin left in them, it is not imputed to them on account of Christ. Devictis autem his hostibus ac reconciliatis nobis Deo per mortem filii ipsius certum est nos iustos esse coram Deo omnesque actiones nostras placere illi, Et si quid peccati in nobis est reliquum, tamen illud non imputari, sed condonari nobis propter Christum. WA 40b.18-21, on Gal. 5.1.
642WA 40b.59.34-60.19, on Gal. 5.13.
643Itaque utrinque periculum est, alterum tamen altero tolerabilius. Si gratia seu fides non praedicatur, nemo fit salvus, Fides enim sola iustificat et salvat. Contra, si praedicatur Fides, ut necesse est eam praedicari, maior pars hominum carnaliter intelligit doctrinam de fide et libertatem spiritus in libertatem carnis rapit. WA 40b.60.27-31, on Gal. 5.13.
644WA 40b.63.13-64.23, on Gal. 5.13.
4.2. Work of the Holy Spirit Even though the work of the Holy Spirit is not Luther's main theme in his Galatians, one gains a good understanding of various aspects of the Spirit's work from Luther's commentary. The same has been recognized by S. Femiano, who has given close attention to the work of the Spirit in Luther's Galatians.645
It is interesting to note that most of Luther's treatment does not discuss the essence and nature of the Holy Spirit but centres around his work. The four most important aspects of the work of the Holy Spirit that he discusses include hearing of faith, assurance of salvation, the struggle between the Spirit and the flesh and regeneration, the themes which have also been identified as central to Luther's understanding of the work of the Holy Spirit in his Galatians by Femiano and Erikson.646 In addition to discussing these four themes, Luther's contrast between genuine deeds of the Spirit with those of sectarians is discussed at the end of this section.
4.2.1. Hearing of Faith The first major treatment of Luther on the work of the Holy Spirit (on hearing of faith in Gal. 3.2) deals largely with the theme of justification. The relationship of the Holy Spirit to justification in this treatment of Luther's can be looked at from three perspectives, the Holy Spirit as God's sign of approval, the connection of the Holy Spirit to the themes of gospel and law and the receiving of the Holy Spirit in the Old and New Testaments. Before looking at these notions, however, the manner of receiving the Holy Spirit is briefly given attention to.
The connection of the preached Word and the Spirit is central to Luther. He asserts that the Holy Spirit is received through the spoken Word, when the gospel is being purely proclaimed.647 When the gospel is preached effectively so 645Femiano explains that despite the fact that Luther's commentary on Galatians does not discuss the work of the Holy Spirit as the 'explicit' main subject, 'yet, because of the Spirit's close connection with the whole process of justification, it presents us with a fairly complete picture of his work.' Femiano
646See Femiano 1962: 43-48 and Erikson 1980: 72-83. Erikson's treatment on Holy Spirit on Galatians treats several other aspects of Luther's commentary as well, including anthropology and justification, thus taking into account the larger context of the work of the Holy Spirit in the commentary. See Erikson
647WA 40a.572.16-28, on Gal. 4.6. See also WA 40a.351.36-352.13, on Gal. 3.5. Luther maintains there are two major times when the Holy Spirit is sent. First, he was sent in a visible form at Pentecost, and second, he is received through the preached Word, which is the manner of receiving the Holy Spirit since the time of the early Christian church. In the same discussion, Luther also closely connects new birth with the receiving of the Holy Spirit through the preached Word. WA 40a.572.16-28, on Gal. 4.6. Also, the Word can be understood both in the outward and the inward sense. The outward, external Word comes first, which is followed by the internal Word which the Spirit affects in the heart of the believer.
Hoc genus doctrinae quod revelat filium Dei, non discitur, non docetur, non indicatur ulla sapientia hominum nec per ipsam legem, sed per Deum revelatur, Primum externo verbo, deinde intus per spiritum. … Primum ergo audivit verbum externum, deinde sequutae sunt revelationes, cognitio verbi, that faith, love and patience follow, then the power of the Holy Spirit is also manifested.648
Luther points out that Paul's argument is that the Holy Spirit is received by the hearing of faith, not through works, thus confirming from the experience of Galatians the genuineness of the doctrine of justification.649 Luther further affirms that the whole book of Acts is written to confirm that the Holy Spirit is given through the hearing of faith, the Holy Spirit being given as God's sign of approval.650 Thus Cornelius and his companions received the Holy Spirit, although they had no chance to perform any good deeds. Instead, they simply sat and heard the gospel preached to them by Peter and received it by faith.651
The fact that the Holy Spirit is received by faith also demonstrates the distinction between the gospel and the law. The law cannot give the Spirit; the gospel by way of contrast does when one hears it, receiving the gospel by faith.
Luther affirms that this proves that 'the Law and the Gospel are altogether contrary doctrines.'652
In response to an objection, ascribed to Peter Lombard and Erasmus,653 which claimed that Cornelius was accepted on account of his alms and good deeds, Luther affirms, that not only Cornelius, but also other people such as the repenting Ninivites and Naman the leper, who had not yet heard the gospel of Jesus Christ, also received the Holy Spirit by faith, not works. The people of the Old Testament had their faith directed to the Christ to come, and although they did not obey the Mosaic law, they were justified on account of their faith. This was the underlying cause of their good deeds. Thus there is no difference in the way the Holy Spirit is received in the time of the Old and New Testaments.654 fides et spiritualia dona. WA 40a.142.14-16,21-22, on Gal. 1.16. It may also be asked whether Luther makes such a distinction between the hearing of faith and regeneration which would suggest that faith precedes the new creation, mirroring the question regarding whether the imputation of Christ's righteousness precedes the impartation of his righteousness. See section 4.2.4. for further discussion.
648Cum igitur Concionator sic praedicat, ut verbum non frustretur suis fructibus, sed efficax sit in auditoribus, Hoc est, cum sequitur Fides, Spes, Charitas, Patientia etc., Ibi Deus subministrat Spiritum et operatur virtutes in auditoribus. WA 40a.351.36-352.13, on Gal. 3.5.
649WA 40a.332.22-34, on Gal. 3.2.
650WA 40a.331.14-23, on Gal. 3.2. Conversely, if one were to return to righteousness by works, the Holy Spirit would be lost. WA 40a.349.19-29, on Gal. 3.3.
651Sic Cornelius et amici ipsius quos ad se vocaverat, nihil faciunt nec spectant opera praecedentia, et tamen, quotquot adsunt, accipiunt spiritum sanctum. Solus Petrus loquitur, ipsi sedentes nihil agunt, non cogitant de lege, multo minus eam faciunt, non sacrificant, non sunt solliciti de suscipienda circumcisione, sed tantum intenti sunt in os Petri; is sua praedicatione attulit illis in cor spiritum sanctum etiam visibiliter; loquebantur enim linguis et magnificabant Deum. WA 40a.324.27-33, on Gal. 3.2.
652Ex his satis intelligi potest, quod sit discrimen inter Legem et Evangelium. Lex nunquam affert spiritum sanctum, ergo nec iustificat, quia solum docet, quid nos facere debeamus. Evangelium vero affert spiritum sanctum, quia docet, quid accipere debeamus. Ideo lex et Evangelium duae prorsus contrariae doctrinae sunt. WA 40a.336.32-35, on Gal. 3.2.
653Luther refers to Lombard's Sentences and Erasmus' Diatrebe. See WA 40a.337.23-27, on Gal. 3.2.
654WA 40a.337.23-341.32, on Gal. 3.2. The difference lies in where the faith is directed, either forward to Christ during Old Testament times or backward to Christ during New Testament times. Further, the law
4.2.2. Assurance of Salvation Luther treats the theme of the assurance of salvation655 and the Holy Spirit in a lengthy address on the work of the Holy Spirit on Gal. 4.6. Luther affirms that the notion of the assurance of salvation is a chief point of Scripture while the opposing concept of the papacy requiring an element of uncertainty regarding one's salvation is indicated by Luther as particularly dangerous.656 Luther's treatment on assurance of salvation is examined in three parts, in reference to the internal and external witness regarding one's status with God, with regards to the person vs. the person's office as pleasing to God, and in relation to human weakness.
Luther maintains that there is both an external and an internal witness, which confirm and assure the believers of their salvation. The external witness includes things such as faithfulness in one's calling (which in the sight of the world seems to be as nothing), loving one's neighbour and hearing the Word gladly. The internal witness, on the other hand, is an inner assurance that one is accepted by God. This assurance makes certain the fact that God accepts not only one's calling in life, whether it be that of a magistrate or a housewife, but also has favour on one's whole person on account of Christ.657 Luther affirms, is now abrogated by the coming of Christ. Et is articulus de fide in revelandum adhuc et iam revelatum
Christum (ut hoc etiam obiter admoneam) scitu pernecessarius est. Nam revelato nunc Christo non possumus salvari fide in venturum Christum, sed cogimur credere eum iam venisse, implesse omnia,
Legem abrogasse. WA 40a.339.20-23, on Gal. 3.2. See also the end of section 4.1.1.5. and section 4.3.1. for further discussion on the relationship between the Old and New Testaments and on the abrogation of the law.
655Petri Järveläinen has drawn attention to the significance of Luther's De servo arbitrio for his view regarding assurance of salvation. Järveläinen posits, 'Luther argues that the Holy Spirit is not a skeptic, but that He has written upon the hearts of believers "assertions more sure and certain than life itself and all experience"' (Järveläinen refers to WA 18.605, and the translation is from LW 33, p. 24). Luther's statement in the original reads as follows, 'Spiritus sanctus non est Scepticus, nec dubia aut opiniones in cordibus nostris scriptsit, sed assertiones ipsa vita et omni experientia certiores et firmiores.' Järveläinen further observes that in comparison to those who trust the worth of their own good works for their standing before God, true believers by way of contrast do not trust their own works. Even God's grace, working within them, is hidden. God, however gives them faith 'which testifies that they are in God's favour'. Järveläinen's study focuses on the nature of religious emotions and thus he further outlines that in Luther's view the gift of faith is supernatural, and includes both cognitive and affective-feeling aspects. See Järveläinen 2000: 102-103. Luther states regarding the hidden nature of faith and regarding the believer's assurance, 'Qui vero nihil dubitat, totum in voluntate Dei pendere, is prorsus de se desperat, nihil eligit, sed expectat operantem Deum, is proximus est gratiae, ut salvus fiat. Itaque propter electos ista vulgantur, ut isto modo humiliati et in nihilum redacti, salvi fiant.' WA 18.632-633. See also
Elenius 2005: 114-122 for another interesting study on emotions in Luther's theology, including a delineation of the role of the spoken Word for one's assurance of salvation.
656Deinde tota scriptura hoc praecipue agit, ne dubitemus, sed certo speremus, confidamus et credamus Deum esse misericordem, benignum, patientem, non mentientem et fallentem, sed fidelem et veracem.
WA 40a.588.12-14, on Gal. 4.6. Luther sees that the doctrine, which the papacy maintains, that one ought to remain in doubt whether one is in a state of grace, overthrows the whole gospel. See WA
40a.575.13-23, on Gal. 4.6.
657WA 40a.577.20-31, on Gal. 4.6.
'Therefore anyone who exercises a position of authority in the church or in the government should believe for a certainty that his office is pleasing to God. But he would never be able to believe this if he did not have the Holy
Spirit. … We should believe for a certainty that not only our office but also our person is pleasing to God. Whatever our person says, does, or thinks in private is pleasing to God, not indeed on our account but on account of The internal assurance believers have, however, often grows weak due to human weakness and sin, which still clings to human flesh. Amidst the terrors of conscience it is not easy to trust, with assurance, that God still is favourable toward oneself.659 The only trustworthy guide at these times is not the external witness of one's willing obedience, but instead the Word of God, the promises of which give one comfort.660 It is at these times that the Holy Spirit, together with our hearts, which are in terror, emits a silent sigh or whisper pleading for help from God. In heaven, however, this silent whisper is so loud, Luther asserts, that the angels 'suppose they cannot hear anything except this cry'.661
4.2.3. The Struggle between the Spirit and the Flesh The struggle between the Spirit and the flesh is one of the most characterising and important concepts of Luther in his Galatians, particularly within concepts relating to the work of the Holy Spirit.662 Luther's notion on the struggle between the Spirit and the flesh in his Galatians is discussed a) with regards to a definition of the Spirit and the flesh, b) in reference to the relationship of justification to the battle between the Spirit and the flesh, c) in terms of the nature of the struggle and d) in relation to works of the flesh vs. fruit of the Spirit.
658Quare qui gerit magistratum in Ecclesia seu politia, certo statuere debet suum officium placere Deo.
Illud autem nunquam statuere poterit, nisi habeat Spiritum sanctum. … Ideo statuere certo debemus non solum officium nostrum placere Deo, sed etiam personam nostram: quicquid ea privatim etiam dixerit, gesserit, cogitaverit, placet Deo, Non quidem propter nos, sed propter Christum. WA 40a.576.16-18, 2729, on Gal. 4.6. Similarly, believers ought to remember that on account of Christ, who is pleasing to God, they are pleasing to God as well. See WA 40a.576.30-33, on Gal. 4.6.
659 Sed multa hanc fidem impediunt. Primum, quod cor nostrum natum est in peccatis, Deinde, quod ingenitum est nobis hoc malum, quod de divino favore erga nos dubitamus, non possumus certo statuere nos placere Deo. WA 40a.580.10-12, on Gal. 4.6. See also WA 40a.579.32-580.24, on Gal. 4.6.
660WA 40a.582.20-24, on Gal. 4.6.
661Non frustra ergo Paulus hunc gemitum pii cordis afflicti vocat clamorem et gemitum inenarrabilem spiritus, replet enim totum coelum ac tam fortiter clamat, ut Angeli putent se nihil usquam audire praeter istum clamorem. WA 40a.582.31-33, on Gal. 4.6.
662The struggle between the Spirit and the flesh, together with the contrast between the law and the gospel, was Luther's favourite theme in his sermons on Galatians from 1531 onwards. Luther preached on the theme at least seven times, each time focusing on the whole or part of the passage in Gal. 5.16-25.
See Kleinknecht's helpful summaries of these sermons in Kleinknecht 1980: 361-408, esp. 361-362, 386387. For the sermons, see WA 34b.196-205, WA 41.675-680, WA 41.680-684, WA 46.498-502, WA
49.554-562, WA 51.50-57, WA 22.256.
There are at least two definitions of the Spirit and the flesh, which Luther outlines. Firstly, the Spirit represents forgiveness, justification, the believers' righteousness before God and their liberation from the law.663 The flesh, by way of contrast, represents everything in the human agent apart from Christ.664 This means that the flesh stands for, not only what is obviously flesh, for example immorality, but especially for what is most outstanding in humans, namely the wisdom of the flesh and human reason. Secondly, one can identify the Spirit with everything done with the Spirit (such as faithfulness in one's vocation) and the flesh with deeds performed in order to attain righteousness by the law.665
The struggle between the flesh and the Spirit deals with the experience of justification in one's daily life where the Christian feels the strong impact of sinful desires. Luther notes that the fact that he could not rid himself of sin was highly distressing to him in his earlier life as a monk. He found the reminiscences of the counsel of his superior Staupitz to him to be a great comfort.
Luther explains how Staupitz affirmed that despite his thousands of vows not to sin again, he never became and never would become perfect on the earth. This, according to Luther, was a holy kind of despair. Thus it is a great comfort for the Christian to know that there is an ongoing struggle between the Spirit and the flesh within them.666 On this side of heaven, one is not yet perfect, but partly sinner and partly righteous (partim iustus, partim peccator), having only the firstfruits, but not the tithes of the Spirit.667 Despite the fact that Christians do feel sinful urges such as anger or sexual lust raging and arousing within them, they should not despair. This is part of the Christian life.668 While Christians experience the struggle with sin, they should remember that on account of Christ's imputed righteousness, they are accepted by God.669
663WA 40a.347.21-26, on Gal. 3.3.
664Quicquid praeter hunc in nobis est, sive sit intellectus, voluntas, sive actio, passio etc., caro, non spiritus est. Quicquid igitur mundus habet optimum et sanctissimum extra Christum, peccatum, error et caro est. WA 40b.30.20-23, on Gal. 5.5.
665WA 40a.347.26-348.26, on Gal. 3.3 and WA 40b.30.23-24, on Gal. 5.5.
666WA 40b.91.32-93.18, on Gal. 5.17. Luther elucidates the struggle between the Spirit and the flesh in his sermon on Gal. 5.16-24 (preached in 1531) and explains that both the flesh and the Spirit within the believer have contrary desires, the Spirit drawing upwards, and the flesh downwards. Yet, both of these entities live side by side in the one human. Luther states, 'Das ist eyn selczamer text Hominem concupiscere, attamen esse ex spiritu et carne, die ij zyhen die strebkacze. Caro tendit ad inferos, spiritus ad celum und ist dennoch j mensch, non duplex persona, quod diversos haberet affectus in carne et spiritu, scilicet peccati et bonae vitae. WA 34b.198.27-199.16, 10 September 1531, Epistola Ad Galatas
667Nunc autem contrarium fit a nobis, caro enim adhuc fortis, fides autem imbecillis et spiritus infirmus est. Ideo recte ait Paulus 'nos tantum primitias spiritus in hac vita habere', illic nos habituros decimas.
WA 40a.599.27-29, on Gal. 4.7. See also WA 40b.79.22-80.35, on Gal. 5.16.
668WA 40b.98.20-99.28, on Gal. 5.18.
669Interim tamen, ut et in hac vita iusti simus, habemus 'Propiciatorium' et Thronum gratiae Christum, in quem credentes, peccatum nobis non imputatur. Est igitur fides iusticia nostra in hac vita.WA 40b.79.31In the experience of the Christian, when the flesh presses one with sinful desires, one ought to control the flesh by the Spirit. While the flesh cannot be killed, it must be kept in check.670 Luther counsels,
'We should take pains to be righteous outwardly as well, that is, not to yield to our flesh, which is always suggesting something evil, but to resist it through the Spirit.'671
Luther further affirms that if some, due to their weakness, are unable to bridle their flesh, they ought at least not gratify the desire of the flesh. In this they are helped by the power of the Spirit and it is in fact thanks to the Holy Spirit that one does not put into practice in word or deed what one feels a sinful urge to do.672
Luther delineates some aspects of the works of the flesh and the fruit of the Spirit in his comment on Gal. 5.19-24. Luther highlights idolatry within the works of the flesh and identifies all works done without God's command as idolatry.673 Luther counsels that the best way to restrain from the works of the flesh is to use the Word, faith and prayer, together with the Spirit, to resist the urge for sinning.674 Among the fruits of the Spirit, on the other hand, Luther regards love as supreme, which in a sense covers all the others.675
670 Itaque cum aliquis sentit hanc carnis pugnam, non ideo abiiciat animum, sed resistat Spiritu et dicat:
Ego sum peccator et peccatum sentio, quia carne nondum exutus sum, in qua tantisper haeret peccatum, donec vivit, Sed Spiritui, non Carni obsequar, Hoc est, apprehendam fide et spe Christum ac ipsius verbo me erigam atque hoc modo erectus concupiscentiam carnis non perficiam. WA 40b.91.25-30, on Gal.
671Deinde operam dare debemus, ut etiam externe iusti simus, hoc est, ne assentiamur carni, quae semper suggerit aliquid mali, sed illi resistamus per Spiritum, WA 40b.90.26-28, on Gal. 5.17.
672Sed unusquisque se ipsum diligenter exploret, qua potissimum passione carnis afficiatur, et, ubi hoc deprehendit, non sit securus, non blandiatur sibi, sed vigilet et luctetur Spiritu contra eam, ut, si omnino refrenare non potest, saltem eam non perficiat. WA 40b.94.23-27, on Gal. 5.17. See also WA 40b.93.1994.27, on Gal. 5.17. The battle between the Spirit and the flesh is also connected to the concept of the abrogation of the law and the notion of the law and gospel. The law is already fulfilled for the Christian in their conscience through their faith in Christ. To the extent that the Christian spontaneously does what the law requires in their outward works, the law is also abrogated in their works. Correspondingly,
Christians are under the gospel as far as they are of the spirit, and as far as they are still under the flesh, they are still under the law. In this sense (corresponding to the civil use of the law), over human flesh, the law is always in effect. Compare WA 40b.121.13-24, on Gal. 5.23 with WA 40a.526.21-22, 528.6-14, on Gal. 3.23. See sections 4.1.2. and 4.3.1 for further discussion.
673Summae religiones, sanctitates et ardentissimae devotiones eorum, qui sine verbo et mandato Dei colunt Deum, sunt Idolatria. … Et tamen ista spiritualissima res, ut ratio iudicat, est iuxta Paulum opus carnis. WA 40b.110.14-15, 21-22, on Gal. 5.19-21. Idolatry includes especially those works which are performed in order to be justified. Luther explains that idolatry is a kind of spiritual witchcraft, because it attempts to make a pact with God, (in reality making the pact only with a false god) attempting to please
God with one's works for salvation. Magia enim pactum facit cum daemonibus, superstitio seu idolatria cum Deo, non vero tamen, sed facticio. Quare idolatria est vere Veneficium spirituale. WA 40b.113.16674The threat of God's punishment also helps in this struggle. Quod fit, cum non solum ieiuniis aut aliis exercitiis petulantiam carnis deprimunt, sed, ut supra Paulus dixit, cum Spiritu ambulant, hoc est, cum admoniti divinis comminationibus, quibus comminatur Deus se peccatum severe puniturum, a peccando
Luther addresses the subject of regeneration in his comment on Gal. 3.27 in connection with the theme of baptism. Baptism, Luther affirms, is where Christ is clothed on the infant signifying new birth and regeneration. In baptism, therefore, one receives all that Christ has, salvation, the Spirit and righteousness.676 Luther discusses regeneration further as one of the last themes before the close of his commentary on Gal. 6.15, where he contrasts external works with the new creation.
What counts before God, Luther affirms, is Christ alone, and a new creation, not outward works.677 It is the Holy Spirit, who through the preached Word brings the new creation into being, creating new intellect, will, new motivations and new actions of the flesh.678 As a result, the Christian no longer boasts of one's own works, but thanks God joyfully for his goodness.679 In this state the Christian is pleasing to God, being both inwardly and outwardly righteous due to the new creation wrought by the Spirit. At the same time, the remnants of sin still clinging to the Christian are not imputed to them on account of Christ.680
It may be asked what Luther sees as being the relationship between the hearing of faith and regeneration. Are they aspects of one and the same reality in the sense that the already received Holy Spirit affects both in the heart of the believer? Or is faith the influence of the work of the Spirit (or the first gift of the Holy Spirit), which then consequently leads to the person receiving the Holy Spirit and the new creation? On the basis of Luther's Galatians, it seems that one does not absterrentur, Item cum verbo, fide et oratione instructi non obsequuntur concupiscentiis carnis. WA
40b.122.11-16, on Gal. 5.24.
675Satis fuisset solam charitatem ponere, dilatatur enim in omnes fructus Spiritus. WA 40b.117.15-16, on Gal. 5.22. Christians love one another, honouring each other above themselves because of the Spirit and indwelling Christ, and because of the divine gifts the Christian has, the gifts including the Word and one's baptism. WA 40b.117.17-22, on Gal. 5.22-23.
676Induere vero Christum Evangelice non est imitationis, sed nativitatis et creationis novae, Quod videlicet ego induor ipso Christo, hoc est, ipsius innocentia, iustitia, sapientia, potentia, salute, vita,
Spiritu etc. … Hoc non fit mutatione vestis, non ullis legibus aut operibus, sed renascentia et renovatione quae fit in baptismo. WA 40a.540.17-19, 26-28, on Gal. 3.27. Luther affirms the powerful effect of baptism in contrast to the view of those sectarians, who saw baptism merely as a symbol of joining the Christian church. See WA 40a.541.21-35, on Gal. 3.27. See also footnote 516 on baptism under section
677WA 40b.178.16-179.23, on Gal. 6.15.
678Altera est, qua Spiritussanctus per verbum mittitur in corda credentium, ut hic dicitur: 'Misit Deus Spiritum filii sui in corda' etc. Illa fit sine visibili specie, Quando videlicet per verbum vocale concipimus ardorem et lucem, qua alii et novi efficimur, qua novum iudicium, novi sensus et motus in nobis oriuntur. Ista mutatio et novum iudicium non est opus humanae rationis aut virtutis, sed donum et effectus Spiritussancti, qui cum verbo praedicato venit, qui fide purificat corda et spirituales motus in nobis parit. WA 40a.572.16-23, on Gal. 4.6.
679Accordingly, it is not the externally good persons such as those belonging to the orders of the Minorites or the Franciscans, who are holy, but those who are created anew, being first inwardly righteous in spirit and then also outwardly righteous in the flesh. WA 40b.179.18-180.30, on Gal. 6.15680WA 40b.180.22-30, on Gal. 6.16. find a precise answer to this question, similarly to how Luther does not clarify the exact relationship of the concepts imputatio and unio in his commentary.681 There are passages where Luther affirms that it is faith which leads to renewal and to the new birth and that one must believe in Christ so that one can then be enabled to receive the Holy Spirit through this faith.682 One could, however, also argue on the basis of other instances that faith is received together with the new creation.683 It seems therefore inadvisable to press Luther into answering this question, which does not yet appear to have been an issue of focal importance to him in his
4.2.5. Genuine Deeds of the Spirit vs. Those of the Sectarians Luther draws an interesting contrast between genuine deeds of the Spirit (virtutes
Spiritus) and those of the Sectarians.684 Luther argues that the true sign of the Spirit's work in a person is the fact that a person who was formerly impatient, angry and hostile, becomes gentle and loving toward one's neighbour, and is patient amidst persecutions and personal affliction.685 Luther contrasts these true deeds of the Spirit with the radical works of those who tried to overthrow the papacy by force, using as their method the abrogation of ceremonial observances and the destruction of images.686 Luther affirms that the papacy would have been overthrown gradually, 'solely by the Spirit' (solo Spiritu), through the faithful teaching of the doctrine of justification, had the Sectarians not indirectly strengthened the power of the papacy by turning people against evangelical believers by their drastic actions.687
681See section 4.1.1.2. for further discussion.
682Huic credendum est; ea vox promissionis Abrahae affert Christum, quo fide apprehenso mox donatur Spiritus sanctus propter Christum.WA 40a.401.16-18, on Gal. 3.10. Atque ita [lex] praeparat ad novam nativitatem quae fit per fidem in Christum Iesum, non per legem. WA 40a.539.20-21, on Gal. 3.26. See also WA 40a.421.14-28, on Gal. 3.11.
683S Ista mutatio et novum iudicium non est opus humanae rationis aut virtutis, sed donum et effectus Spiritussancti, qui cum verbo praedicato venit, qui fide purificat corda et spirituales motus in nobis parit.
Ideo maxima differentia est inter nos et inter hostes et depravatores verbi. WA 40a.572.20-23, on Gal.
4.6. See also WA 40a.542.22-544.32, on Gal. 3.27 and WA 40b.178.16-179.23, on Gal. 6.15.
684Luther probably mostly thinks of what he sees as Anabaptist teachings, although he refers to Sacramentarians, too, in this context. The term most often used in this passage is Sectarii. See the whole discussion in WA 40a.351.21-358.16, on Gal. 3.5 and WA 40a.359.17-24, on Gal. 3.6.
685Item eadem virtute Spiritus facti estis ex avaris, adulteris, iracundis, impatientibus, hostibus etc. largi, casti, mites, patientes, amantes proximorum. ... Amare autem proximum tam ardenter, ut paratus sis impendere pecuniam, rem, oculos, vitam et omnia pro ipsius salute, Deinde patienter tolerare omnia adversa etc., certe virtutes sunt Spiritus. WA 40a.352.16-18, 22-24, on Gal. 3.5.
686See WA 40a.353.13-354.20, on Gal. 3.5.
687See WA 40a.355.18-31, on Gal. 3.5.
In addition to the theme of justification, Luther discusses the concept of the law more than any of the other themes.688 In this section, Luther's concept of the law is discussed in relation to its abrogation, and then in terms of its use and misuse. The debated third use of the law is briefly addressed, too, in this context. This is succeeded by an investigation of the two uses of the law, followed by a brief examination of Luther's practical instruction for the use of ceremonial observances in Christian life.
It must be borne in mind that the examination here partly overlaps the preceding section on justification, especially as the concept of the misuse of the law is roughly synonymous with righteousness of works.
4.3.1. Abrogation of the Law It may be in place to note that Luther defines the law in Galatians as the whole law, including all three kinds of the law, whether civil, ceremonial or moral.689 Luther asserts that within this epistle of Paul it is the whole law that is in question, including the moral law of the Decalogue.690
Luther's comment on Gal. 2.19, 3.28, 4.27-28 and 5.23 gives an interesting picture of his view on the abrogation of the law. There are two types of abrogation of the law. The first deals with the inside, with the conscience of the believer. Commenting on the phrase 'Ego autem per legem legi mortuus sum, ut
Deo vivam' (2.19), Luther maintains that Christ is a law, which damns the damning law, namely the moral law, which accuses humans of sin. Thus, just as Christ arose from the grave and is free from it, believers are free from the law, their grave, and it is completely abrogated for them.691 In his comment on another passage (4.27),
688Hermann Kleinknecht remarks that Luther never grows tired of coming back to the themes relating to the law in his Galatians. Specifically, Kleinknecht refers to the second, convicting use of the law in Luther and the contrast between Christ and the law, 'Luther wird nicht müde, dieses Thema, dass das
Gesetz die Sünde zeigt, abzuhandeln. … Luther wird nicht müde, das klare Entweder-Oder (aut-aut) zu wiederholen, das keinerlei Verquickung, keine Verschmelzung und keinerlei Kombination zwischen
Christus und dem Gesetz dulde' (Kleinknecht 1981: 29, 37). Luther himself also recognises the fact that he repeatedly, 'even to the point of excess' (saepe et fere ad fastidium usque inculco) returns to the theme of the law. Such statements can be found, for instance, in relation to Luther's comment on the second use of the law and in connection to the theme of misusing the law for justification. Nam lex, ut saepe iam diximus, in vero suo usu cohercet improbos, perterrefacit et humiliat superbos. WA
40a.612.15-16, on Gal. 4.9. Ergo lex non iustificat.
Haec, ut saepe et fere ad fastidium usque inculco, vera est doctrina de lege ... WA 40a.504.27-29, on Gal.
689See e.g. WA 40a.217.27-218.13, on Gal. 2.16.
690With this definition Luther rejects the distinction of Jerome and the mediaeval church between ceremonial laws and the Decalogue in Galatians. See e.g. WA 40a.218.12-219.14, on Gal. 2.16.
691Est autem mori legi: lege non teneri, sed liberum esse a lege et nescire eam. Ergo qui vult vivus esse coram Deo, studeat inveniri extra legem et exeat cum Christo e sepulchro. WA 40a.270.14-16. Luther further affirms that believers are outside of the law as far as their consciences are concerned, but human
Luther deals with the same concept, the first abrogation of the law, namely that Christ has liberated believers from all the accusations of the law. Luther affirms,
'The Law, that slave, no longer has a right to accuse and condemn us because of our sin; for this has been forgiven, and we have become free by the deliverance of the Son. Therefore the entire Law has been abrogated for the believers in Christ.'692
In line with Luther's definition of the law in Galatians, it is all law that is abrogated for the believer in their conscience, whether civil, ceremonial or moral. None of them are of value before God. Instead, only the garment of Christ, received in baptism avails before Him.693
The second kind of abrogation of the law relates to the outward use of civil and ceremonial observances. Luther asserts that Christians have full freedom from both the observance of the Mosaic law and papal traditions. Luther elucidates,
'A second kind of abrogation of the law, an outward one, is that the political laws of Moses do not apply to us at all. … We are not bound by the ceremonies of Moses either, much less by those of the pope.'694
This freedom from ceremonies pertains, not only to being free to disregard these laws, but also to observe them without constraint, and without an attempt to be justified by them.695 At the same time, Luther is careful to add that Christians are not free from civil laws governing society – while their conscience is free, their body needs to remain subject to the laws of the country.696
The distinction between the two kinds of abrogation of the law is again, though slightly differently, reiterated by Luther in his comment on Gal. 5.23.
Luther explains that the law is abrogated for the believer in two ways, first in the Spirit and then also in works. The law is abrogated for the believer in the Spirit in that through their faith in Christ, they have the righteousness they need before God. flesh, however, ought to be kept under constraint in the grave together with the law. See WA 40a.266.26270.27, on Gal. 2.19. See also WA 40a.272.29-273.25, on Gal. 2.19.
692Lex Serva ius accusandi et damnandi nos propter peccatum, cum nobis remissum sit ac iam Liberi facti simus liberante nos Filio. Quare credentibus in Christum tota lex abrogata est. WA 40a.672.26-28, on 693Quidquid igitur est iustitiae Oeconomicae, Politicae et Divinae, qualis erat iustitia legis, cum summa obedientia, executione iuris et sanctitate, nihil prorsus valet coram Deo. Quid tum? Indumentum Christi quem in Baptismo induimus. … Quotquot ergo iustificantur, non propter observationem legis humanae aut divinae iustificantur, sed propter Christum qui omnes legis in universum abrogavit. WA 40a.543.2226, 544.26-28, on Gal. 3.28.
694Altera abrogatio, scilicet externa, legis est, quod politicae leges Mosi prorsus ad nos nihil pertinent … Neque Caeremoniis Mosi nos astringimur, multominus Papae. WA 40a.673.14-15, 25, on Gal. 4.27.
695WA 40a.673.25-674.8, on Gal. 4.27
696WA 40a.673.14-24, on Gal. 4.27.
Then, as Christians freely and spontaneously do what the law requires, the law is also abrogated in their works.697
4.3.2. Misuse of the Law and the Third Use of the Law In addition to briefer treatments on the law, Luther devotes two extended discussions of around twenty pages to the theme, the first of which, on Gal. 3.10, is addressed here. He argues that there are two contrary ways to keep the law, which also represent two classes of doers of the law.698 One group maintains righteousness by works and keeps the law in the moral way, while the other obeys God's law on the basis of faith, which is the theological or the spiritual way. The first command of the Decalogue is of significance here. Those who presume that they are able to achieve justification by outward obedience to the law, end up breaking the first commandment, because the first commandment requires that one must trust and fear
God alone, thus connecting faith or trust with obedience. Therefore those, who attempt to keep the law without faith, err from the start. Moreover, the requirement of God's law is absolute, requiring perfect obedience, the attainment of which is impossible for humans.699
The difference between the two kinds of doers of the law is further illustrated by the parable of an apple tree and the example of Cain vs. Abel. Those, who keep God's law on the basis of faith, are likened to an apple tree. Justified by faith alone, they keep God's law on the basis of faith, giving God the honour due to him (thus keeping the first commandment) and loving their neighbour in daily life.
However, as it is impossible for believers to keep the law perfectly and because sin still remains in them, their imperfections are covered by Christ's imputed
697Commenting on the abrogation of the law in reference to spontaneous obedience to the law by believers, Luther adds that while the law may not be abrogated in terms of perfect good deeds, the requirement of the law is nevertheless fulfilled through forgiveness. Itaque lex eis simpliciter abrogata est, Primum in Spiritu, deinde etiam in operibus. Non habet igitur ius accusandi eos, sponte enim faciunt, quod lex requirit, si non perfecte sanctis operibus, saltem remissione peccatorum per fidem. Sic
Christianus intus implet legem fide, Christus enim perfectio legis est ad iusticiam omni credenti, foris operibus et remissione peccatorum. WA 40b.121.18-23, on Gal. 5.23.
698Later in the same discussion, Luther discusses a third way to obey the law, representing the obedience to the law by philosophers, who obey the law for the maintaining of order and for the benefit of society.
Luther congratulates those using the law in a philosophical sense because this use stays within the proper limits, not using laws for the purpose of trying to be justified before God. See WA 40a.411.24-412.24,
418.12-17, on Gal. 3.10.
699Qui hoc considerat, facile intelligit, quod facere legem sit non tantum externe in speciem, sed in Spiritu, hoc est, re vera et perfecte praestare ea quae in Lege praecipiuntur. … Ergo legem hoc modo, ut ipsi somniant, impossible est nos facere, multo minus per eam iustificari. ... Ideo faciendo legem non solum eam non faciunt, sed etiam negant primum praeceptum, divinas promissiones, benedictionem
Abrahae promissam, negant fidem et seipsos suis operibus conantur benedicere, hoc est, iustificare, liberare a peccato et morte, diabolum vincere et vi coelum rapere, Quod est simpliciter negare Deum et esse in locum Dei constituere. WA 40a.398.30-32, 400.15-16, 404.27-31, on Gal. 3.10. See also WA
40a.399.17-28 and WA 40a.404.32-405.24. righteousness.700 This is also the way in which Abel kept the law, placing his trust in Christ, represented by the sacrifice he offered. By way of contrast, those who attempt to keep the law outside of faith, are trying to make an apple tree by offering works (or fruit) without having first become an apple tree. They are exemplified by Cain, who offered the works of his own hands to God.701
Therefore, those who attempt to keep the law without faith misuse it and only end up breaking God's commands. They replace trust in God with confidence in their works, which become their idol because they attempt justification through them. The right use of the law, by way of contrast, is obeying it on the basis of faith.702
In his exposition of Gal. 4.3, Luther further elucidates the concept of misusing the law. He points to Paul calling the law with 'loathsome names'
(odiosissimas appellationes), following Paul's identification of the law with the 'weak and beggarly elements' (infirma et egena elementa). Luther explains that apart from the conscience and before the coming of Christ, the law is good and holy, while in the conscience and after Christ, it is the devil and death. Accordingly, when misused for the purpose of justification, the law is 'loathsome'
(odiosissimas).703 This is the principal way of abusing the law. Two other groups who misuse the law are, first, the 'openly wicked despisers' (contemptoribus palam impiis) of the law who disregard it altogether, exemplified in the peasants' revolt and second, those who, feeling the terror and condemnation of the law, remain in despair and do not accept the comfort and freedom through faith in Christ for justification.704
700Sed quia tantum primitias Spiritus, nondum decimas habemus et reliquiae peccati in nobis manent, legem perfecte non facimus. Sed hoc credentibus nobis in Christum qui Abrahae promissus est et nos benedixit, non imputatur. WA 40a.408.12-15, on Gal. 3.10. See also WA 40a.408.29-409.12, on Gal.
3.10 and for the larger context for the passage, see WA 40a.405.25-409.22, on Gal. 3.10.
701Ut facere includat simul fidem, quae fides habet ipsum facientem et facit arborem, qua facta fiunt fructus. Oportet enim prius esse arborem, deinde fructus. Poma enim non faciunt arborem, sed arbor poma facit. Sic fides primum personam facit quae postea facit opera. Itaque facere Legem absque fide est facere poma sine arbore ex ligno et luto, quod non est facere poma sed mera phantasmata. WA
40a.402.13-19, on Gal. 3.10. Atque hinc dicit ille ad Ebrae., Hostiam Abelis fuisse meliorem, quia credebat; Cain vero, quia impius et Hypocrita erat, fecit morale vel potius rationis opus quo quaerebat placere Deo. Fuit ergo hypocriticum et infidele opus Cain, ut nulla fides gratiae, sed sola praesumptio suae iusticiae fuit in eo. WA 40a.414.15-19, on Gal. 3.10. Luther further introduces an interesting concept of compound faith. Just as Christ in an absolute sense is divine, but as incarnate can be seen in a compound sense, as both divine and human, so also faith can be seen in a compound sense, including good works. Thus, in an absolute sense, in itself, faith is alone, but in a compound sense it includes works, too. Therefore all the statements of Scripture which praise works, praise them for the sake of the underlying faith. See WA 40a.414.24-417.21, on Gal. 3.10. For a brief discussion on Peter Manns'
(Manns 1970) treatment on Luther's view of absolute and incarnate faith in his Galatians, see section 702Compare WA 40a.406.17-18 with 40a.408.27-409.12, on Gal. 3.10. For the larger context, see WA
703WA 40a.553.27-554.14, on Gal. 4.3.
704WA 40a.552.28-553.25, on Gal.4.3. See also Gal. 3.23 for the three abuses of the law.
We now turn briefly to the debated issue of the third use of the law (tertius usus legis), that of its use in regenerate Christians (usus in renatiis). It is evident that Luther rejected antinomianism. However, there has been a continuing debate between scholars of different persuasions regarding the question of how far
Luther saw a positive role for the law in the life of a Christian. Most scholars see that there is no evidence in Luther for an explicit third use for the law,705 while at the same time, it is nevertheless recognized that there is an important role for good works in the life of the Christian.706 Examples of how the necessity of good works is maintained in Luther, can be seen in the positive use of biblical commands in Christian life of Paul Althaus,707 usus practicus evangelii of Wilfried Joest,708 and the spontaneous fulfilling of the law by love of Lauri Haikola,709 each of which is
705There is a statement in Luther's Die zweite Disputation gegen die Antinomer, which appears to include a reference to a third use of the law. Quare lex est docenda? Lex docenda est propter disciplinam iuxta illud Pauli 1. Timoth. 1: Lex est iniustis posita, atque ut hac paedagogia hominess ad Christum perveniant, quemadmodum paulus ad Galatas 3 ait: Lex est paedagogia in Christum. Secondo. Lex docenda est, ut ostendat peccatum, accuset, perterrefaciat et damnet conscientias, ad Romanos 3: Per legem cognitio peccati, item capite quarto: Lex iram operatur. Tertio. Lex est retinenda, ut sciant sancti, quaenam opera requirat Deus, in quibus obedientiam exercere erga Deum possint. WA 39a.418.16-24,
Die zweite Disputation gegen die Antinomer. 12 January 1538. This is thought to be a forgery, however due to the fact that the wording is suspiciously similar to Melanchthon's second Loci Communes. See
Paulson 2001: 271-272. The view that it is a forgery was introduced by Werner Elert, whom Paulson also refers to. See Werner Elert, Law and Gospel, Philadelphia: Fortress Press, p. 39; quoted in Paulson 2001:
271. Even if Luther actually made the reference, it is ill-advised to base an argument on only one reference. It is important to look at his overall view to ascertain whether it accommodates a third use for the law.
706For instance, Georges Bavaud, discussing Luther's position in his Galatians, affirms that while Luther rejects a third use for the law, his theology pushes him to a recognition of good works in the Christian life, and that is why the believer also needs to behold Christ the legislator in this sense, though not for justification. Bavaud affirms, 'Luther n'a pas parlé d'un troisième usage de la loi alors que sa théologie profonde le pousse à reconnaître l'importance de l'obéissance dans la vie chretienne. ... Cependant, au delà de ce problème de vocabulaire, il nous apparaît évident qu'aux yeux du Réformateur, le Christ doit être considéré comme un législateur, non dans l'acte de justification, mais dans la vie chrétienne qui suit le pardon gratuit de Dieu. ... La conséquence est claire : pour accomplir les bonnes oeuvres, le chrétien justifié doit jeter un regard sur le Christ législateur.' See Bavaud 1977: 239-240. For a helpful and brief review of the main influential positions of Luther scholars on the third use of the law (excluding the newest contributions such as that of Hütter), see Silcock 1993: 8-29.
707Althaus affirms, 'Wir sprechen nicht mehr vom dritten Gebrauch des Gesetzes (noch weniger von "Evangelium und Gesetz"), wohl aber von einem Gebrauch der biblischen Gebote und Weisungen im
Christenleben.' See Althaus 1952: 37.
708Joest states, 'Wir möchten statt dessen lieber einen usus legalis und einen usus evangelicus des Gebotes unterscheiden. Unter dieser Bedingung aber leben wir den Weg frei zu einer positiv evangelischen Aufrichtung des Gebotes Gottes über allen Bereichen praktischer Lebensordnung im
Einklang sowohl mit Luther als mit der heiligen Scrift.' See Joest 1956: 200. For the specific term usus practicus evangelii, see e.g. Joest 1956: 198.
709Haikola argues, 'Gerade weil die christliche Liebe mehr hat und mehr tut, als irgendeine Gesetzesordnung fordert, ist es ihm ein Anliegen, das freie Recht der Liebe zun Zerbrechen gegenener und zum Aufstellen neuer Gesetzesordnungen zu betonen. Die "Antinomisten" sind an diesem Punkte
Luthers treue Nachfolger gewesen. Wir haben dagegen gesehen, dass die historische Vorstellung des defined against an explicit third use of the law.710 Attention is now turned to Luther's exposition of Gal. 3.10, which is meaningful in this context.
In his comment on Gal. 3.10, as noted above, Luther sees the keeping of God's law, when performed on the grounds of faith, only in a positive sense. This keeping of the law is characterised in both tables of the Decalogue, in honouring God by faith and in placing our trust in him (the first table) and in loving our neighbour in daily life (the second table).711 Which use of the law is in question in this discussion of Luther's? A similar concept is also found in Luther's exposition of Gal. 4.4-5 where Luther maintains that the 'final cause' (finalis causa) for believers to keep the law is 'the peace of the world, gratitude toward God, and a good example by which others are invited to believe the gospel.'712 It is clear that neither the first use – restraining the wicked nor the second use of the law – law as showing sin, and preparing for Christ, is in question here. Is this then an occasion in which a third use of the law is discussed by Luther? It seems that one could say so, if one is only to look at the concept itself. One could easily draw a close parallel between keeping the law on the ground of faith and the third use of the law in Melanchthon or Calvin.713 As far as the concept itself goes, it would therefore seem usus tertius von einem Gesetzesverständnis ausgeht, be idem Gottes Wille unddie christliche Liebe von einer ewig gültigen objektiven Gesetzesordnung eingeschlossen sind.' See Haikola 1981: 152. See also
Haikola 1981: 150-151.
710Silcock, for his part, sees an implicit agreement in Luther with the Formula of Concord. Silcock rejects a legalistic understanding of the third use for the law and instead affirms a subordination of the law under the use of the gospel. He states, 'The term "third use of the law" suggests that in the Christian life it is the law as rule, norm, and guide which ultimately accomplishes our sanctification, whereas we have argued that this is the task of the gospel, and that when the law (specifically, the Decalogue) is used by the Holy Spirit for our sanctification, this happens precisely because the law is now taken into service by the gospel so that the gospel remains the power of God both in justification and sanctification.' See
711Quare facere est primum credere et sic per fidem praestare legem. Oportet enim nos accipere Spiritum sanctum, quo illuminati et renovati incipimus facere legem, diligere Deum et proximum. WA
40a.400.31-33, on Gal. 3.10. For the larger context of Luther's lengthy discussion, see WA 40a.396.26419.21, on Gal. 3.10.
712Finalis causa obedientiae legis in iustis non est iustitia coram Deo, quae sola fide accipitur, sed pax mundi, gratificatio erga Deum et bonum exemplum, quo alios invitant ad credendum Evangelio etc. WA
40a.570.18-21, on Gal. 4.4-5.
713For instance, in his Loci Communes from 1535, Melanchthon states, 'Tertium officium legis in his, qui sunt fide iusti, est, ut et doceat eos de bonis operibus, quaenam opera Deo placeant, et praecipiat certa opera, in quibus obedientiam erga Deum exerceant. Etsi enim liberi sumus a lege, quod ad iustificationem attinet, tamen, quod ad obedientiam attinet, manet Lex. Nam iustificatos necesse est obedire Deo. Et quidem incipient aliqua ex parte facere legem. Et placet illa inchoate obedientia, propterea quia personae placent propter Christum. Haec satis sit hic admonuisse de legis usu seu officiis.
CR 21.406. For the relationship of Luther and Melanchthon's positions on the question of tertius usus legis and good works, see e.g. Greschat 1965: 189-193 and Finn Andersen's well researched article, which I could unfortunately only find from the internet. See Andersen, Finn, Lovens Tredje brug hos
Available at: http://www.lutherdansk.dk/WebLovens%20tredje%brug/Lovenstr.htm. See section 5.3.3. for a discussion on Calvin's concept of the third use of the law and section 6.3.2. for a comparison of Luther's and Calvin's positions. acceptable to recognize a third use of the law in Luther's Galatians.714 David P.
Scaer, and more recently Reinhard Hütter, indeed identify a third, positive (Scaer)715 or spiritual (Hütter)716 use of the law in Luther. Nevertheless, the question must be weighed against the fact that Luther does not explicitly talk of a separate third use of the law, and on the contrary states that there are only two uses for the law, the civil and the theological. The fact that Luther only explicitly identifies two must be respected. It appears that for him, the freedom of the gospel is so central that, while recognizing the necessity of obedience, he protected the spontaneity of Christian freedom in not identifying an explicit third use for the law.
714Markula concludes in his MA thesis on Luther's Galatians that one can talk of a third use of the law in Luther's Galatians in reference to the old human ('vanha ihminen'). However, as a whole, there is hardly any independent role left for a third use of the law since Luther's two uses of the law and his understanding of God's total will already explain the main concepts, which could otherwise have been connected to the concept of a third use of the law. See Markula 1979: 124-130.
715Scaer states, 'In Luther's theology the third use [of the law] means that the negative prohibitions of the law are transferred into positive indicatives and descriptions of the life lived with Christ. … Even if, with the advent of sin into the world, God's holiness can be described only in negative terms as opposed to sin, certainly His holiness has an existence not dependent on sin for definition. In the same vein the law for man in pristine bliss was positive and not negative. Man's fall is responsible for viewing God and His will in negative terms. The advent of sin puts a negative cast on God's will, but with the coming of Christ, Christ and salvation now comprise God's will to the world.' Scaer 1985: 191-192.
716Hütter states, 'Because the law is fulfilled once and for all through God's own costly intervention in Christ, for Luther Christ is such incredibly good news – Gospel. … The law is abrogated through Christ insofar as it terrorizes the sinners' consciences by constraining, unmasking, and convicting them. Yet the law's content is restituted to its original intent as the genuine expression of God's will: the law of love. It provides the creaturely gestalt of genuine freedom, the freedom of communion with God as received by faith. Now it is God's own law of love received in Christ, a "law" therefore welcomed with delight.'
Hütter 2001: 144. Hütter identifies this as the spiritual use of the law in Luther. Hütter does not generally use the term 'third use of the law' for the concept. However, the fact that he equates 'the third use of the law' with 'spiritual use of the law' appears implied, for instance, in the fact that any query on the third or pedagogical use of the law in the index is directed to the concept of the spiritual use of the law. See
Hütter 2004: 140-142, 154-158, 177-179, 309-310. Vainio appears to agree with Hütter, at least to a large extent, in seeing the Christian as 'bound to be free', as the title of Hütter's book states. (Vainio also explicitly refers to Hütter's view; Vainio 2006: 183ff.) Vainio posits that Christian freedom finds its form from God's commandments and is realised in them. Vainio states, 'Ihminen on vapaa vain silloin, kun hän iloiten yhtyy Jumalan käskyihin. Kristityn vapaus realisoituu ja saa muotonsa Jumalan käskyistä.
Uskossa laki ei häviä olemasta, vaan se on täytetty Kristuksessa. ... Uskossa Kristus asettuu asumaan ihmiseen, ja hän antaa muodon sekä uskolle että elämälle. Näin toteutuu todellinen vapaus, joka on osallisuutta Jumalan omasta vapaudesta.' Vainio 2006: 198-199. While there appears much truth to Hütter's position, it also appears that perhaps he crosses too easily from the two uses of the law identified explicitly in Luther to a third one, that of the spiritual, 'free' use of the law. While a spiritual use of the law in Luther can be supported by some of his statements, the stress Hütter places on this aspect of the law easily leads to losing sight of Luther's own emphasis. That is why it appears preferable to stay with Luther's own explicit identification of only two uses of the law, while maintaining the necessity of good works as well.
4.3.3. Two Uses of the Law This section is primarily based on Luther's second lengthy treatment on the law in Gal. 3.19, where he expounds the notion of the two uses of the law.
Luther identifies the two uses as the civic use (usus civilis) and the spiritual and theological use (usus theologicus seu spiritualis).717 He illuminates the civic use and its necessity by an illustration of the human being as a dangerous, wild beast, who has to be caged in by laws to constrain him from doing evil incessantly.718 Laws are therefore necessary, ordained by God for the keeping of order and for the benefit of society.719
The principal and proper use of the law, however, is its theological use. In this function, the law acts as a hammer which crushes and destroys human pride and shows the futility of attempting to attain to righteousness by one's own good works.720 This role of the law can be embodied in two distinct aspects of the effect the law has on the human. On the one hand, the law drives the human sinner to despair and, in a sense, magnifies their transgression, while on the other, it prepares them for justification in that it drives them to Christ to find forgiveness. In other words, the law kills, but with the purpose of making one alive for Christ.721
Thus, in this function, the law is not against God's promise and the gospel, since it produces a thirst for Christ. This preparation for Christ is termed 'the best and most perfect use of the law' (optimus ac perfectissimus legis usus).722 Another interesting picture of the theological use of the law can be found in Luther's example of the veil of Moses.723 The impact of the law on the Israelites at the giving of the law was so powerful and terrifying that if there were no veil of Moses, they would have been instantly killed. Similarly, today, when the law directs its rays on the sinner, there
717See WA 40a.479.17-481.25, on Gal.3.19 and WA 40a.499.30-500.24, on Gal. 3.19.
718Deus ordinavit civiles, imo omnes leges ad cohercendas transgressiones. … Ut ergo furenti et indomitae bestiae iniicitur vinculum, ne saeviat in quaeque sibi obvia, ita lex insanum et furentem hominem cohercet, ne ulterius peccet. WA 40a.479.17-18,24-26, on Gal. 3.19.
719WA 40a.479.30-480.31, on Gal. 3.19.
720Quare magnum et horribile monstrum est Opinio iustitiae. Ut ergo Deus eam contundat et conterat, opus habet ingenti et forti malleo, lege scilicet, quae malleus est mortis, tonitru inferni et fulmen irae divinae. WA 40a.482.22-24, on Gal. 3.19. In addition to comparing the law to a hammer, Luther also likens the law to a civic prison which restrains from crime, and to a theological prison showing transgression and human sinfulness in preparation for the gospel. See WA 40a.519.34-520.24, on Gal.
721Legis ergo officium est tantum occidere, sic tamen, ut Deus possit vivificare. WA 40a.517.26, on Gal.
3.23. See also WA 40a.517.26-518.24, on Gal. 3.23.
722Quando lex sic te urget, desperatis omnibus rebus tuis, ad quaerendum auxilium et solatium apud Christum, tum est in vero usu, Sicque servit per Evangelium ad iustificationem. Et is est optimus ac perfectissimus legis usus. WA 40a.490.21-24, on Gal. 3.20.
723Luther points to the need for the veil of Moses (Moses cum suo velo; WA 40a.502.15, on Gal. 3.20) illustrating the necessity of having a mediator to protect the sinner from the terrifying power of the law.
Earlier, in his comment on Gal. 2.6, Luther discusses a different concept with a similar illustration, the masks of God (larva Dei, WA 40a.174.14, on Gal. 2.6). In this discussion larva Dei represents social positions which are necessary in this world. Compare WA 40a.501.12-503.30, on Gal. 3.20 with WA
40a.173.24-179.19, on Gal. 2.6. are only two alternatives – death or turning to Christ, the Mediator, who saves the sinner from the terror of the law.724
In his exposition on the theological use of the law, Luther alludes to human reason several times. This is especially well presented in his depiction of the law as the sun. When the human agent has not yet correctly comprehended the true nature of the law, seeing only 'the outward mask' (externa legis larva) of the law, human reason imagines that it can keep the law.725 However, when the beams of the sun (the law in its true sense) shine on the human, he flees in terror just like the Israelites at Sinai, and hates the light of the law.726 This fleeing from the law demonstrates human sinfulness in two ways. First, it proves that human reason is against the law and far from being capable of fulfilling it (in that human reason rejects the true light of the law and runs away from it).727 Second, the contempt and blasphemy hidden in human hearts against their Author becomes evident in the fact that when the law reveals human sin, humans wish that the law was abolished and intensely hate God's good and holy law.728
On the other hand, in the daily life of a Christian, the function of the law can be seen somewhat differently. There the law has a continuing function.
The time of the law and the time of grace are constantly alternating, the law keeping the flesh under control and preparing for Christ and grace comforting sinners in their conscience and assuring them of God's acceptance and forgiveness.729
4.3.4. Ceremonial Observances in Christian Life Two additional treatments of Luther's on the law, those of his exposition of Gal.
4.9-10 and 4.27, provide a distinct view of Luther's practical instruction regarding the proper use of ceremonial observances, whether papal and Mosaic, in Christian life. Luther considers that one may observe the laws of the pope, as long as this is
724Interestingly, Luther maintains that if one uses the veil of Moses in between oneself and the law, one becomes a hypocrite, thinking one can achieve justification by one's own good deeds. See WA
40a.502.16-24, on Gal. 3.20. See WA 40a.501.12-503.30, on Gal. 3.20 for the larger context of the discussion.
725WA 40a.498.30-499.12, on Gal. 3.19.
726Sed Historia legis latae testatur omnes homines in toto mundo quantumvis sanctos (praesertim cum hi qui mundati et sanctificati erant, non potuerunt legem audire) adversari, horrere et fugere legem et cupere eam non esse. WA 40a.497.30-33, on Gal. 3.19.
727WA 40a.499.18-29, on Gal. 3.19.
728Sic revelato peccato per radios quos lex in cor spargit, nihil est homini odiosius et intolerabilius lege.
Ibi tum mortem potius eligeret, quam quod perferre deberet vel brevissimum tempus istos terrores legis.
… Quare ista fuga indicat infinitum odium cordis humani contra legem et per consequens contra ipsum Deum. WA 40a.496.21-24, 30-31, on Gal. 3.19. See also WA 40a.497.30-33, on Gal. 3.19.
729Est igitur in Christiano utrumque tempus legis et gratiae in affectu. Legis tempus est, quando lex me exercet, divexat, contristat et redigit in cognitionem peccati ac illud auget. ... Tempus gratiae est, cum cor iterum erigitur promissione gratuitae misericordiae Dei et dicit: 'Quare tristis es, anima mea, et quare conturbas me?' ... Sic ergo Christianus divisus est in duo tempora. Quatenus est caro, sub lege est, quatenus Spiritus, sub Evangelio est. WA 40a.524.32-34, 525.23-24, 526.21-22, on Gal. 3.23. For the larger context of this discussion, see WA 40a.524.32-527.27, on Gal. 3.23. done freely, without constraint and without attempting to use them for justification.730 Despite this, Luther sees papal traditions in a much more negative light than the ceremonial laws of Moses, since papal observances do not have any command of God behind them. The ceremonial laws of Moses, for their part, Luther affirms, are not binding on Christians either.731 Neither are other ceremonies, such as celebrating Christmas, Easter, and coming to church on Sunday. They are nevertheless important when they are used freely, not for the purpose of justification, but for the purpose of bringing people together for the hearing of the Luther clearly indicates that in his view the most important part of the epistle to the Galatians is the first part dealing with justification. The part relating to good works is therefore secondary.733 Nonetheless, Luther devotes a significant part of his comments on the epistle to discussing the notion of good works. There are at least three significant aspects of Luther's discussion, those of a) the relationship of good works to justification and Christian liberty, b) the contrast Luther draws between genuine and spurious good works, c) love toward one's neighbour as the motivation for good works and d) practical aspects of Luther's exhortation on good works.
4.4.1. Relationship of Good Works to Justification and Christian Liberty Luther's assertion on false faith on Gal. 2.18 may be taken as an introductory statement to his comments on good works. Here Luther affirms the necessity of good works while rejecting the view that justification takes place partly by faith and partly by works. Luther maintains the doctrine of justification by faith alone and regards good works as a result and a fruit of justification.
'Therefore we, too, say that faith without works is worthless and useless.
The papists and the fanatics take this to mean that faith without works does not justify, or that if faith does not have works, it is of no avail, no matter how true it is. That is false. But faith without works – that is, a fantastic
730Itaque si voles observare leges Papae sine offensione conscientiae, serves illas sine opinione iustitiae, ea namque per solum Christum donatur. WA 40a.620.25-27, on Gal. 4.9.
731Neque Caeremoniis Mosi nos astringimur, multominus Papae. WA 40a.673.25, on Gal. 4.27. Si autem Lex ipsa per Mosen divino mandato tradita eos maledictioni obnoxios facit qui sub ea sunt, multo magis hoc facient leges seu traditiones humana ratione inventae. WA 40a.391.30-33, on Gal. 3.10. See also WA
40a.361.28-362.14 on Gal. 3.6 and WA 40a.418.12-419.21, on Gal. 3.10.
732WA 40a.623.17-624.21, on Gal. 4.10.
733Interestingly, as Luther's lectures proceed, his identification of the point at which the secondary, less central part of the epistle starts, moves forward. First, Luther identifies this as Gal. 3.17-18 onwards, then, Gal. 4.8-9 onwards. Finally, the secondary part of the epistle is identified by Luther as being from Gal. 5.12 onwards. Luther makes statements to this effect in WA 40a.470.24-27, on Gal. 3.17, WA
40a.473.20-23, on Gal. 3.18, WA40a.600.25-26, on Gal. 4.8-9 and WA40b.59.20-30, on Gal. 5.12. idea and mere vanity and a dream of the heart – is a false faith and does not justify.'734
Luther's longest treatment of good works is his exposition of Gal.
5.14. This exposition is important in this context and complements the picture of good works as the fruit of justification. The ground of genuine good works is always faith. The interrelationship between faith and love is further important in this context. Love acts as the servant of faith.735 Thus, faith expresses itself through love, and leads to true and genuine good works.736 It is very important to maintain a proper balance. Both faith and works must be taught. When the foundation of faith has been laid, good works must follow and Christians should be admonished and urged to do good works.737 In accordance with Luther's concept simul iustus et peccator, he maintains that the love and good works of Christians cannot attain to complete perfection on this side of heaven. Believers begin to love God and their neighbour, and serve their neighbour with good works, though not perfectly.738
734Concludimus ergo cum Paulo, Sola fide in Christum nos iustificari sine lege et operibus. Postquam vero homo fide iustificatus est et iam Christum fide possidet et novit eum esse iustitiam et vitam suam, certe non erit otiosus sed ut bona arbor proferet bonos fructus, Quia credens habet Spiritum sanctum; ubi is est, non sinit hominem esse otiosum, sed impellit eum ad omnia exercitia pietatis, ad dilectionem Dei, ad patientiam in afflictionibus, Ad invocationem, gratiarum actionem, ad exhibendam charitatem erga omne. Quare et nos dicimus fidem sine operibus nihili esse et inanem. Hoc Papistae et phanatici sic intelligunt: Fidem absque operibus non iustificare Vel fidem quantumvis veram, si opera non habeat, nihil valere. Hoc falsum est, Sed fides sine operibus, id est, phanatica cogitatio et mera vanitas et somnium cordis, falsa est et non iustificat.WA 40a.265.29-266.19, on Gal. 2.18. The quotation above is taken from WA 40a.266.15-19, on Gal. 2.18. In his exposition of Gal. 5.15, Luther affirms similarly with regard to Christian preaching and explains that when ministers preach on good works, great care needs to be taken that the doctrine of righteousness by works is rejected. At the same time, however, it needs to be carefully maintained that if no good works follow faith, this is sure evidence that there is no true faith present. See WA 40b.78.17-23, on Gal. 5.15.
735Raunio, in his work on the golden rule ('love your neighbour as yourself'), expresses the interesting thought that love and faith are complementary and as important aspects of Luther's theology. Raunio states, 'Erstens wird gezeigt, dass die Liebe kein zweitrangiger Bestandteil in Luthers Theologie ist, sondern dass gerade die Verwirklichung der göttlichen Liebe sogar das entscheidende Anliegen seines
Denkens ist.' Raunio 1993: 362. While Raunio's thesis cannot be fully examined here, it appears that at least in Luther's Galatians love seems to take a secondary role compared to the concept of faith. This is indicated also in Luther's statement ascribing a serving, subservient role to love in comparison to faith,
'Paulus contra dicit charitatem debere esse servam'. WA 40b.65.21, on Gal. 5.14. See the following footnote for the full quote.
736Paulus contra dicit charitatem debere esse servam, et nisi sit in officio servitutis, non esse charitatem.
... Destructo enim fundamento Christo et obscurata doctrina fidei impossibile est remanere ullum verum usum, exercicium et opinionem bonorum operum. Sublata arbore necesse est auferri quoque fructus. ...
Fides tamen primum plantanda est, sine ea enim impossibile est intelligi, quid bonum opus sit, quid Deo placeat. WA 40b.65.21-22, 66.15-17, 66.30-32, on Gal. 5.14.
737WA 40b.67.33-68.19, on Gal. 5.14.
738Luther affirms that in heaven, however, believers will be righteous inwardly, too, namely, by the perfect love they will have then. Si ab omnibus peccatis puri essemus et perfecte arderemus charitate erga Deum et proximum, tum certe iusti et sancti essemus per charitatem, nihilque esset, quod ultra Deus a nobis requirere posset. Hoc in praesenti vita non fit, sed differtur in futuram. WA 40b.80.31-34, on Gal.
5.16. Luther, discussing the relationship of faith and hope, encourages Christians, when faced with their However, their remaining imperfection and sin is not imputed to them because of Christ, in whom they believe.739
Further, Luther also looks at good works from the perspective of their relationship to Christian freedom. Justified before God by faith, the believers are free from the law and thus perform good works freely, without constraint. They do not use faith as a licence for sin, but serve their neighbour and remain faithful in their calling.740 Luther elucidates,
'Therefore every Christian should know that in his conscience he has been established by Christ as a lord over the Law, sin, and death, and that they do not have jurisdiction over him. On the other hand, he should know also that this external obligation has been imposed on his body, that through love he should serve his neighbour.'741
4.4.2. Genuine Good Works vs. Spurious Good Works Much of Luther's discussion on good works handles the difference between genuine and spurious good works. This is illustrated in a parable of a tree. If the root and ground of a tree is wrong from the start (no faith), the works that follow are of the wrong kind as well.742 Accordingly, true believers perform their deeds on the grounds of faith and understand that genuine good works are those done to help and serve one's neighbour in acts of love.743 As Robert Bertram poignantly affirms:
'The fundamental truth remains: God "does not need our works," our neighbors do.'744 By way of contrast, those who try to attain to righteousness by their own imperfection, that they can have hope in Christ who is their righteousness all through this life. It is only in heaven that their actual righteousness will be fully perfect. See WA 40b.25.19-26, on Gal. 5.5.
739Interim tamen, ut et in hac vita iusti simus, habemus 'Propiciatorium' et Thronum gratiae Christum, in quem credentes, peccatum nobis non imputatur. Est igitur fides iusticia nostra in hac vita. WA
40b.79.31-80.13, on Gal. 5.16.
740Quare meminerint pii, se in conscientia coram Deo esse liberos a legis maledicto, a peccato et moret propter Christum, corpore autem esse servos. Hic alter alteri per charitatem iuxta hoc Pauli praeceptum servire debet. Unusquisque igitur studeat, in sua vocatione diligenter facere officium suum et, quacunque re potest, adiuvare proximum. WA 40b.62.14-19, on Gal. 5.13.
741Quare unusquisque Christianus sciat, se per Christum constitutum esse in conscientia dominum legis, peccati, mortis etc., ita quod illa non habeant ius in eum etc. Contra sciat quoque hanc servitutem externam corpori suo impositam esse, ut per charitatem serviat proximo. WA 40b.64.15-19, on Gal. 5.13.
742Fides tamen primum plantanda est, sine ea enim impossibile est intelligi, quid bonum opus sit, quid Deo placeat. WA 40b.66.30-32. See also WA 40b.70.24-71.21, on Gal. 5.14.
743WA 40b.65.23-66.32, on Gal. 5.14. Luther further explains, however, that even in the justified it is a struggle to both understand and practice the true works of love, and not to have high regard for selfchosen ceremonial observances, which are much more appealing to human reason and flesh. Manent enim etiam in iustificatis peccati reliquiae, quae, ut a fide, ita et a vere bonis operibus abhorrent et avocant. Deinde ratio humana et caro, quae in Sanctis resistit Spiritui (in impiis vero potentissime dominatur), naturaliter afficitur Pharisaicis superstitionibus et, ut Psalm 4. ait: 'Diligit vanitatem et quaerit mendacium', Hoc est, plus delectatur, Deum metiri ex suis cogitationibus, quam ex verbo ipsius,
Et longe maiori ardore facit opera, quae ipsa elegit, quam quae Deus praecipit. WA 40b.67.34-68.17, on 744Bertram 1968: 235. works observe foolish ceremonies such as paying special attention to seasons, wearing special clothing, and adhering to beliefs about places. This they do on the basis of human reason, which does not understand the pure teaching of the gospel.745
4.4.3. Love of One's Neighbour As expressed in Galatians, Luther believes that love of one's neighbour, resulting from faith, the Spirit and the Word, is the primary motivator for good deeds. He rejects the mediaeval definition of love as 'wishing someone well' and explains instead that spiritually perceived, love refers to having husky shoulders for bearing the needs of one's neighbour.746 The neighbour of the Christian is identified by Luther as anyone in need. There is a natural knowledge in human hearts, connected with the notion of natural law, which tells each person just what kind of deeds they ought to do to help their needy neighbour.747 Luther further explains that just as people are ready to excuse their own sins, according to the law of love they ought to 745Neque tanti facerent et inflarent suas bullas, hoc est, nugas et superstitiones, ut sunt: tristi vultu et demisso capite incedere, coelibem esse, victitare pane et aqua, in Eremo agere, sordido vestitu uti et similia. Illa prodigiosa et superstitiosa opera, quae neque Deo mandante neque approbante eligunt, iudicant tam praeclara et sancta, ut charitatem, quae est sol omnium operum, longissime superent et obscurent. Adeo incomprehensibilis et infinita est caecitas humanae rationis, ut non solum de doctrina fidei sed etiam de vita et operibus rite iudicare non possit. WA 40b.71.26-34, on Gal. 5.14.
746WA 40b.144.15-145.25, on Gal. 6.2.
747Antti Raunio elucidates Luther's critique of the Augustinian interpretation of the golden rule ('Love your neighbour as yourself', Matt. 7.12) and explains how Luther did not accept the view of Augustine according to which one must find a proper balance between loving oneself and one's neighbour. By way of contrast, naturally humans only love themselves and this is only an indicator of how much humans ought to love others, instead of themselves. See Raunio 2007: 58-60. Raunio further insightfully explains how in Luther's view every person has a god from whom they expect to receive good. It is only those who receive all good things as a gift from God, who then pass this good on to others. Raunio states,
'Kultaisen säännön perusidea Lutherin mukaan on, että ihmisen tulee ottaa kaikki hyvä vastaan Jumalalta ja lahjoittaa sitä eteenpäin tarvitseville.' Raunio 2007: 62. For Raunio's comparison on Luther and Melanchthon's view on the golden rule and Christian ethics, see Raunio 2007: 121-137. For more detail on Luther's explanation of the golden rule, see also his expositions of Gal. 5.6 in the 1519 commentary on Galatians, WA 2.575.31-582.34 and his comment on Matt. 7.12, WA 32.493.38-499.4. Mannermaa, for his part, draws attention to two kinds of love which Luther describes. Luther critiques the view
(ascribed to Aquinas for instance) according to which humans ought to direct their love toward what is above the human, toward God, and toward all good things. In contrast to this position, Luther stresses that God's love came down to humans instead of waiting for them to come to him and gave everything which is good to them. In the same way, humans ought to direct their love 'downward', toward one's neighbour and all those who are needy. See Mannermaa 1983. Mannermaa argues that it is possible to look at the whole theology of Luther from the perspective of these two kinds of love. Mannermaa affirms, 'Uskonpuhdistajan kaikki teologia voidaan itse asiassa avata näiden kahden rakkauden lajin tarjoamasta näkökulmasta.' Mannermaa 1983: 14. bear with the faults of others, too, which is especially important both for those in positions of leadership, whether in civil authority, in the family or in ministry.748
4.4.4. Good Works in Practice Serving one's needy neighbour and remaining faithful in one's daily calling and vocation are two principal ways in which Luther exhorts his hearers to put their faith into practice. Luther elucidates,
'Thus we shall learn to praise the works that each man performs in his calling – even though in external appearance they appear to be trivial and contemptible. … Finally, no creature toward which you should practice love is nobler than your neighbour.'749
A further issue, which Luther attends to in some detail in the exposition of Gal. 6.6-10, is providing for ministers. He affirms that the devil is on the attack in this issue, evidenced by the fact that during the papacy the priests were abundantly remunerated, while many evangelical ministers were now suffering want since those in the Lutheran areas had grown neglectful in giving.750 Luther asserts that this state of affairs is sure evidence that Christian freedom is not appreciated, and that the Word has already been lost.751 However, while Luther asserts that ministers ought to be provided for liberally in order that they can live with reasonable comfort, he also cautions that in giving one ought not deprive oneself of the necessities of life.752
Luther concludes his presentation on good works by exhorting believers to persevere in the performing of good works for all those who are in need. He states,
'As Paul is about to conclude the epistle, he … exhorts us in general to all good works. … For it is easy to do good once or twice, but to stay with it
748WA 40b.144.30-145.25, on Gal. 6.2. However, Luther advises that the bearing of each other's burdens and sins does not apply to open despisers of Christian doctrine, who ought to be avoided so that one does not share in their sins. WA 40b.145.25-29, on Gal. 6.2.
749Ut ita discamus magnificare opera, quae unusquisque in sua vocatione facit, etiamsi in speciem levia et despecta videantur, modo habeant mandatum Dei, Et e contra contemnere ea, quae ratio eligit sine mandato Dei, ut maxime praeclara, gravia, magna, sancta videantur. … Postremo nullum animal, erga quod exercere debes charitatem, nobilius est proximo tuo. Non est diabolus, non leo, ursus, lupus, non lapis, lignum etc., sed animal tui simillimum, quo nullum vivit in terris iucundius, amabilius, utilius, benignius, magis consolatorium et necessarium, quodque naturaliter conditum est ad civilitatem et societatem. WA 40b.71.36-72.12, 72.31-35, on Gal. 5.14.
750Prius, cum impia et falsa docerentur, tam abunde affluebant omnia, ut ex Patrimonio Petri, qui negat se argentum et aurum habere, et ex spiritualibus, ut vocant, bonis Papa, Caesar, Cardinales et Episcopi etc.
Reges et Principes mundi facti sint. Nunc autem, cum Euangelium doceri est coeptum, tam divites sunt professores ipsius, quam olim fuerunt Christus et Apostoli. WA 40b.156.21-26, on Gal. 6.6. See the larger context in WA 40b.156.21-159.22, on Gal. 6.6.
751WA 40b.158.23-32, on Gal. 6.6.
752Quod autem dicit: 'In omnibus bonis', non sic accipiendum est, ut singuli omnia sua bona communicent doctoribus suis, sed ut liberaliter eos alant, quantum satis sit ad vitam commode tuendam.
WA 40b.159.23-25, on Gal. 6.6. and not to be overcome by the ingratitude or malice of those you are helping – this is work and labor. There he exhorts us not only to do good but also not to grow weary in doing good.'753
4.5. Scandal of the Cross and Suffering as a Christian Luther's notion of the scandal of the cross (scandalum crucis)754 is intimately tied with the theme of suffering, and the two notions are generally treated together.
Luther discusses this theme several times, treating it in some detail.755 The analysis of the notion of the scandal of the cross is divided into four parts, starting with a) the definition of the theme, followed by b) the idea of suffering as training for the Christian, continued with c) the inevitability of the scandal of the cross and concluded by giving attention to d) the comfort Christian has in one's sufferings.
The theme of the scandal of the cross and suffering as a Christian can be briefly defined by looking at Luther's explanation of the infirmitate
('weakness') or stigmata ('marks') which Paul had (Gal. 4.13-14, 6.17) and scandalum crucis (Gal. 5.11). Luther affirms that the infirmitate Paul had referred to the sufferings Paul encountered for the sake of preaching Christ.756 Similarly, the stigmata of Paul were not any outward physical marks,757 but his sufferings as a believer. These sufferings, experienced by all true Christians, are both physical, in the form of outward persecution, and internal, taking place as terror and anxiety of heart. Luther elucidates,
753Conclusurus Epistolam a specie ad genus transit, et in genere ad omne bonum opus hortatur, Quasi dicat: Non solum erga ministros verbi, sed etiam erga omnes simus liberales et benefici, idque sine defatigatione. Nam facile est semel atque iterum benefacere, sed perdurare nec vinci ingratitudine aut malicia eorum, quibus benefacias, hoc opus, hic labor est. Ideo non solum adhortatur nos ad benefaciendum, sed ut benefacientes non defatigemur. WA 40b.163.26-32, on Gal. 6.9. See the larger context in WA 40b.163.26-164.27, on Gal. 6.9-10.
754For a discussion of the theme the theology of the cross (theologia crucis) in Luther, closely related to that of scandalum crucis, see e.g. McGrath 1985 and Kadai 1999.
755For the passages dealing with the theme of the scandal of the cross and Christian suffering, see WA 40a.626.13-628.27, on Gal. 4.12, WA 40a.633.17-639.18 on Gal. 4.13-14, WA 40a.640.19-640.31, on Gal. 4.15, WA 40a. 644.14-648.15 on Gal. 4.17, WA 40a.675.29-684.35 on Gal. 4.29-30, WA
40b.52.29-56.15, on Gal. 5.11, WA 40b.58.14-59.19, on Gal. 5.12, WA 40b.169.34-176.10, on Gal. 6.14 and WA 40b.181.18-183.19 on Gal. 6.17.
756WA 40a.634.32-635.24, on Gal. 4.13-14.
757Luther alludes to the stigmata St. Francis (of Assisi) is said to have had and affirms them to have been either 'pure fiction and a joke' or, if he truly had them, he did not have them for Christ's sake but because of vainglory or 'foolish devotion'. Sicut superiorem sententiam: 'Quicunque iuxta hand regulam incedunt' intelligent Minoritae de sua regula dictam esse, ita et hanc fingunt de stigmatibus Francisci sui intelligentam esse. Ego puto merum figmentum et ludibrium esse, quod ipsi de hac re dixerunt. Esto sane, quod portaverit Franciscus in corpore stigmata, ut pingitur, tamen ipsi non impressa sunt propter
Christum, sed ea ipse sibi impressit ex stulta aliqua devotione seu potius inani gloria, qua titillare se potuit, quod tam charus fuerit Christo, ut etiam sua vulnera corpori ipsius impresserit. WA 40b.181.18- 'These are the true stigmata, that is, imprinted marks, about which the apostle is speaking here; we, too, by the grace of God, bear them on our body today on account of Christ. For the world persecutes and slays us, false brethren hate us bitterly, and Satan terrifies us inwardly in our hearts with his flaming darts … all this for no other reason than that we teach that Christ is our righteousness and life.' 758
As evident also in the quote above, Luther sees persecution as coming to believers from two directions, first, from the physical persecution of papists and the world, and second, from the spiritual persecution by sectarian teachers, the latter of which,
Luther affirms, is the harder one to bear.759
Scandalum crucis, on the other hand, refers to the offence human reason takes for the 'ugly shape of the cross' (vilibus formis crucis).760 Human reason cannot understand why Christians boast of their happiness and victory over sin while they are at the same time weak, despised and condemned by both ecclesiastical and secular powers.761 Further, scandalum crucis (Gal. 5.11) can be understood either actively or passively. Understood in an active sense, it refers to persecutions, and in a passive sense to the fact that the church must suffer persecution for the simple reason that it is preaching the gospel purely.762
Explaining how suffering as a Christian can be seen as training, Luther affirms that in case there is no persecution for the Christian, they inevitably become smug and proud. The afflictions the Christians have to undergo are therefore useful for them, training them, and keeping them humble.763
758Illa sunt vera stigmata, hoc est, notae impressae, de quibus hic Apostolus loquitur, quas et nos hodie, gratia Dei, gestamus in corpore nostro propter Christum. Mundus enim persequitur et occidit nos, falsi fratres acerrime oderunt nos, Satan intus in corde suis ignitis telis perterrefacit nos, nullam ob aliam caussam, quam quod docemus Christum iusticiam et vitam nostram esse. WA 40b.183.9-14, on Gal.
6.17. See also WA 40a.637.10-31, on Gal. 4.13-14.
759Spiritualis, qua phanatici nos hodie impugnant, molestissima ac prorsus intolerabilis nobis est propter scandala, quibus diabolus deformat doctrinam nostram, quia cogimur audire sectas Anabaptistarum et
Sacramentariorum et omnia mala orta esse ex doctrina nostra. Corporalis, qua rebus et corporibus nostris insidiantur Tyranni, longe tolerabilior est, quia non fit propter peccata nostra, sed confessionem verbi
Dei. WA 40a.681.32-682.15, on on Gal. 4.29.
760WA 40a.638.10-25, on Gal. 4.13-14.
761Humana enim ratio facile offenditur illis vilibus formis crucis et pro insanis habet eos, qui alios volunt consolari, iuvare et curare, Item qui iactant magnas opes, iustitiam, fortitudinem, victoriam peccati, mortis et omnium malorum, laetitiam, salutem et vitam aeternam, Et illi ipsi interim egent, infirmi, tristes, despecti sunt, indignissime tractantur et occiduntur ut nocentissimae pestes rerum publicarum et religionis, Et non a vulgo, sed ab optimatibus, qui sunt in administratione politica et Ecclesiastica. WA
40a.638.10-20, on Gal. 4.13-14.
762WA 40b.54.17-55.27, on Gal. 5.11.
763Et nisi exerceremur vi et dolis per Tyrannos et Haereticos et in corde pavoribus et ignitis Satanae telis, tam obscurus et ignotus esset nobis Paulus, quam superioribus seculis fuit toti mundo et adhuc hodie adversariis nostris, Papistis et phanaticis est. Ideo donum prophetiae et studium nostrum una cum tentationibus internis et externis aperiunt nobis sensum Pauli et omnium scripturarum. WA 40a.634.26Moreover, persecutions are inevitable, on the one hand because the true children of God are always persecuted by Ishmael (those who seek righteousness through works) and on the other hand because Satan is incensed when the gospel is purely preached. He cannot stand the fact that his kingdom is invaded when people put their faith in Christ.764
Despite their trials, Christians can rejoice amidst their sufferings.
The fact that one is persecuted for one's faith in Christ and hated for purely preaching about him, is a cause for joy because this testifies to the truth of the message one is preaching. Therefore the believers can feel comforted because they are not persecuted for their own sakes, but on account of Christ.765 Furthermore,
Christians can stand above their afflictions and sufferings by faith because Christ, who is in them, stands as Victor above their tribulations.766 Thus they can leave their cause in the care of Christ. Luther affirms,
We shall commend this cause of His to Him; and we shall watch and see, happy and secure, who will win, Christ or they. According to the flesh, of course, we are sorry that they, our Ishmaelites, hate and persecute us so furiously. But according to the spirit, we boast of our afflictions, both because we know that we are not bearing them on account of our sins but are bearing them on account of Christ.767
Ministry is the third most frequent concept in Luther's Galatians following the themes of justification and the law. There are discussions of ministry, not only at the beginning of the epistle dealing with Paul's calling as an apostle, but throughout the commentary. Naturally, Luther's comment on ministry in his Galatians does not provide a comprehensive treatment of all aspects of his total view on this subject.
Nevertheless, a well rounded picture emerges in an analysis of Luther's comments on the notions of call to ministry, the authority and purity of the gospel, the task of ministry, the importance of fatherly tenderness and the concept of κενοδοξία
(vainglory)768 in ministry.
764WA 40a.680.32-681.26, on Gal. 4.29.
765WA 40b.170.24-171.22, on Gal. 6.14.
766WA 40a.635.25-636.11, on Gal. 4.13-14.
767Nos hanc suam causam illi commendantes, laeti et securi interim erimus spectatores, visuri, utri vicerint, Christusne, an ipsi. Dolet quidem nobis secundum carnem, quod ipsi, Ismaelitae nostri, tam furenter nos oderunt et persequuntur, secundum spiritum tamen gloriamur in afflictionibus nostris, tum quia scimus eas nos ferre non propter peccata nostra, sed propter Christum. WA 40a.681.37-682.14, on 768Luther refers to the actual Greek word κενοδοξία frequently in his treatment of the theme. See e.g. WA
40b.123.15-124.20, on Gal. 5.25, and WA 40b.147.31-148.25, on Gal. 6.4.
4.6.1. Call to Ministry Luther distinguishes two types of calling to ministry. He maintains that God can assign persons to gospel ministry without means, through direct appointment, as he did in the case of Paul. The other type of calling comes by the mouth of the prince
(mandatum Dei per os Principis), and is an appointment of God just as well as the direct call.769 This is maintained in opposition to 'sectarians' (Sectarii) who maintained that a private, instead of a public call was sufficient for ministry.
Luther explains another issue dealing with the call to ministry, the relationship between the Word and the genuineness of the call, in his exposition of Gal. 1.19 and 2.9.770 The authenticity of the call to ministry is a central issue, because the Word of the gospel is so important. Everything, Luther affirms, depends on the Word of the gospel. Luther asserts,
'Thus the necessity of Paul's ministry … demanded that with a necessary and holy pride he should boast of his vocation and of the knowledge of the Gospel revealed to him by Christ. Then their consciences would be completely persuaded that Paul's doctrine was the Word of God. Here Paul was dealing with a great and serious issue, namely, that all the churches might be preserved in sound doctrine. In short, the issue in the controversy was a matter of eternal life and death.771
Accordingly, in response to the objection of Porphyry, who argued that Paul was motivated by personal pride in defence of his calling, Luther affirms that Paul guarded the authenticity of his appointment for the sake of the Word, and not because of his own private concerns.772
4.6.2. Authority and Purity of the Gospel The theme of the authority and purity of the gospel is one of the most important concepts relating to ministry in Luther's Galatians. Although the theme is not always explicitly connected to ministers, it is self-evident from the subject at issue that this notion is focal to Luther's view.
769See WA 40a.59.16-60.26, on Gal. 1.1. From Luther's writings elsewhere, it is clear that he saw the appointment for the task of ministry as the task of the bishop. With no appointed bishop present, however, the prince of the land acted instead of the bishop and appointed ministers to their task. For further information and sources on this issue, see Beyer 1983: vol. I, 107-108, vol. II, 762.
770Luther identifies Paul's human and divine appointment to ministry as the main theme in the beginning of the epistle to Galatians until Gal. 2.9. WA 40a.190.25-191.10, on Gal. 2.9.
771Requirebat igitur necessitas ministerii Pauli et omnium Ecclesiarum, ut necessaria ac sancta superbia iactaret suam vocationem et revelationem Evangelii sibi a Christo factam, Ut certae redderentur conscientiae, Pauli doctrinam esse Dei verbum. Res hic magna et seria agebatur, nempe, ut omnes
Ecclesiae conservarentur in sana doctrina. In summa, agebatur de vita et morte aeterna. Ablato enim puro et certo verbo non exsistit amplius consolatio, salus, vita etc. WA 40a.147.25-32, on Gal. 1.19.
772Ablato enim puro et certo verbo non exsistit amplius consolatio, salus, vita etc. Est ergo ibi hoc Pauli consilium, ut Ecclesias retineat in vera doctrina, non dimicat pro defendenda gloria sua, ut Porphyrius calumniatur. WA 40a.147.31-148.11, on Gal. 1.19.
Luther affirms that just as Paul's gospel is from God alone, the evangelical gospel is from God alone, and not from the pope.773 Further, being from God, the doctrine of the gospel has authority.
The authority of the gospel is closely connected to the notion of the purity of the gospel, which Luther sees as an issue of focal importance. One should strive with all one's might, by prayer and study of Scripture, to retain pure gospel teaching and doctrine.774 Doctrine is an area where no compromises can be made.
Where faith is involved, there we should be invincible, inflexible, stubborn, and harder than adamant, if this were possible; … The struggle is over the glory of God, the Word of God, the true worship of God, true religion, and the righteousness of faith—these things had to be and remain pure.775
That is why both Paul in his time and evangelical believers at Luther's time display holy pride when defending the purity of doctrine, because nothing is as important as this issue, namely, the Word of God, the truth of the gospel and in a special sense, the doctrine of justification.776 Luther summarises,
'In short, the issue in the controversy was a matter of eternal life and death.
For once the pure and certain Word is taken away, there remains no consolation, no salvation, no life.'777
Compromises can be made in any other areas when, motivated by love, the believers yield and submit. However, when the question at issue is the gospel and its purity one should strongly reject all teaching threatening pure doctrine.778
4.6.3. Task of Ministry The task of ministry, as discussed by Luther in his Galatians, relates primarily to two subjects, that of the preached Word and that of opposing false teachers.
773See WA 40a.145.18-24, on Gal. 1.17.
774See WA 40a.130.23-31, on Gal. 1.11-12.
775Secundum fidem autem oportet nos esse invictos, inflexibiles et pertinacissimos et, si possemus, duriores Adamante; Secundum charitatem vero molliores et flexibiliores omni arundine et folio et ad omnia obsequentes. Non ergo dimicatur hic de superbia, gloria et praegrogativa etc., ut in Papistis videmus. Sed certamen est de gloria Dei, de verbo Dei, vero cultu, religione et iustitia fidei, ut ista pura habeamus et conservemus. WA 40a.188.12-18, on Gal. 2.8.
776See WA 40a.171.32-172.25, on Gal. 2.6 and WA 40a.192.19-193.19, on Gal. 2.11. Leif Erikson affirms, in his analysis of authority and the means of grace (auktoritet och nådemedel) in Luther's
Galatians, that for Luther, everything either 'stands or falls' with the maintaining or losing of the purity of the doctrine of justification. Erikson states, 'Vi har sett hur starkt Luther betonar artikeln om rättfärdiggörelsen i Stora galaterbrevskommentaren och hur allt står och faller med att den bevaras ren.'
See Erikson 1994: 83-84.
777Res hic magna et seria agebatur, nempe, ut omnes Ecclesiae conservarentur in sana doctrina. In summa, agebatur de vita et morte aeterna. Ablato enim puro et certo verbo non exsistit amplius consolatio, salus, vita etc. WA 40a.147.29-32, on Gal. 1.18-19.
778See WA 40a.188.12-18, on Gal. 2.8.
Antti Elenius has drawn attention to Luther's distinction between the church as a 'mouth-house' and 'pen house' (Darumb ist die kirch eyn mundhaws, nit eyn fedderhaws) in his sermon in 1522, a distinction which closely relates to the focal role of the spoken Word for Luther in his Galatians.779 Luther delineates the central function of the preached Word in a short but pregnant passage in his comment on Gal. 4.19. Luther affirms that ministers function as spiritual parents for their congregation. Just as children are born to their physical parents, believers are born through the preached Word. The preachers, however, cannot accomplish this birth by mere words – instead, the work of the Holy Spirit, enabling the hearing of faith in the hearers is essential. Luther explains,
'For the Word proceeds from the mouth of the apostle and reaches the heart of the hearer; there the Holy Spirit is present and impresses that Word on the heart, so that it is heard. In this way every preacher is a parent, who produces and forms the true shape of the Christian mind through the ministry of the Word.'780
Other more practical issues relating to the preached Word include Luther's recommendation of illustrations and stories, which help the common people to remember and understand the gospel.781 Another interesting aspect of Luther's comment is the fact that he extols the advantages of the preached Word as 'a Queen' (Regina) over the written word, which is 'a dead messenger' (mortuum
779Luther discusses the meaning of the word Bethphage, which in Greek means 'mouth-house'
(mundhaws) and explains how until the time of Christ the Word had been hidden in the written form, but since His coming has been preached as a spoken Word. Luther states, 'Datzu stymmet das worttle
Bethphage, wilchs auff deutsch, alss ettlich sagen, heyst mundhawss denn Paulus Ro. 1. sprict, das Euangelium sey tzuvor ynn der heyligen schrifft vorsprochen, aber es ward nit mundlich und offetlich predigt, biss das Christus kam and sandte die Apostelln auss. Darumb ist die kirch eyn mundhawss, nit eyn tedderhawss.' WA 10.1.2.48.1-5, Das Euangelium am ersten sontag des Advents Matthei .xxi, 1522.
Elenius emphasises the fact that Luther sees God's Word, together with the Holy Spirit, as bearing the power in itself to arouse spiritual feelings, such as that of assurance of salvation. This Word is better heard through the spoken Word, although it is present in the written form as well. Elenius states, 'Vaikka lukijalta ja kuulijalta toisaalta edellytetään näitä kykyjä, ymmärtää Luther toisaalta elävän Sanan sellaiseksi, joka ikään kuin kantaa näitä tunteita synnyttävän voiman itsessään. Sana synnyttää ihmisessä paitsi hengelliset tunteet myös kyvyn kokea sellaisia tunteita.' ... Jumalan Sana on elävää myös kirjoitettuna, mutta se on tarkoitettu nimeomaan puhuttavaksi, jolloin sen ilmaisemat tunteet ovat paremmin läsnä.' Elenius 2005: 114-115.
780Verbum enim procedit ex ore Apostoli et pertingit ad cor audientis; ibi Spiritussanctus adest et imprimit in cor illud verbum, ut sonat. Hoc modo omnis Doctor pius est parens, qui per ministerium verbi generat et format veram figuram Christiani animi. WA 40a.649.27-30, on Gal. 4.19. Luther further explains that there is a second sending of the Holy Spirit (the first took place at Pentecost), which occurs when a person hears the preached Word through faith. See WA 572.16-28, on Gal. 4.6.
781See WA 40a.548.15-549.26, on Gal. 4.1-2. Luther also notes that common people love allegories, but their use is dangerous and can only be correctly used by those who already have a perfect knowledge of Christian doctrine. WA 40a.652.30-653.20, on Gal. 4.21. nuntium), grounded in the fact that the spoken word can be adjusted to the needs of the hearers.782
One of the first references of Luther to ministry is his bemoaning of the fact that just one fanatical teacher can cause so much damage and cause many to fall from faith. Luther therefore accentuates the importance of being sharp against false teachers, especially because the erroneous teaching of false teachers strikes against the core issue, justification, through their imposed requirement of works as necessary in justification.783 Therefore ministers ought to do everything possible to keep those under their care from being misled.784
4.6.4. Fatherly Tenderness in Ministry Luther affirms several times how important it is for the minister to demonstrate fatherly care in their work.785 Tenderness is especially necessary in dealing with the flock, the ordinary people of the church. However, false teachers of spurious doctrine, by way of contrast, are to be treated with sharpness and indignation.786
Even opponents of true and pure doctrine must not be treated with hatred, however.
Luther comments on his sharpness against papists and Anabaptists, 'Our rebukes are harsh too, and our pen vigorous. But our heart is certainly not bitter or envious or vindictive against our opponents. On the contrary, there is in us a godly agitation and sorrow of spirit. I do not hate papists and other erring spirits in such a way that I invoke evil upon them or wish
782Contra viva vox in comparatione ad Epistolam Regina est, quia potest demere et addere et sese vertere in omnes figuras et qualitates affectuum, temporum, locorum et personarum. WA 40a.652.14-16, on Gal.
4.20. See also the whole passage in WA 40a.651.21-652.28, on Gal. 4.20. However, this is not to be seen as indicating Luther's rejection of the written Scripture in any sense. Rather, the gospel is more easily accepted when it is heard in the spoken form.
783See WA 40a.102.21-104.19, on Gal. 1.6 and WA 40a.110.28-113.26, on Gal. 1.7.
784Est et hic Rhetoricum exemplum, quod pius Pastor solicitus esse debeat pro ovibus suis seque in omnia vertere, ut obiurgando, blandiendo, rogando etc. eas retineat in sana doctrina et a seductoribus abalienet.
WA 40a.648.30-32, on Gal. 4.18.
785See e.g. WA 40a.100.17-102.19 and 40a.104.21-30, on Gal. 1.6, WA 40a.308.33-311.29, on Gal. 3.1, WA 40a.350.25-351.18, on Gal. 3.4, WA 40a.624.23-626.12, on Gal. 4.11-12 and WA 40b.138.21144.13, on Gal. 6.1. In his MA thesis on the concept of hope in Luther's 1531/35 commentary on Galatians, Koivisto pinpoints two differing functions of a minister in his shepherding role. First, the minister ought carefully to maintain doctrinal purity in his ministry, and second, the minister ought to act as a comforter, with fatherly tenderness, to those under his care. The Word of God and its promises are an important tool in comforting the weak. See Koivisto 2004: 81-88, 90-92
786In articulis fidei nihil parvum aut tenue nobis videri debet, quod remittere debeamus aut possimus.
Remissio enim peccatorum pertinet ad infirmos in fide et moribus, qui agnoscunt peccatum et veniam petunt, non ad eversores doctrinae, qui non agnoscunt suum errorem et peccatum, sed hostiliter defendunt veritatem et iusticiam esse. WA 40b.138.12-16, on Gal. 6.1. Simul autem hic docet exemplo suo, Pastores et Episcopos paterno et materno animo affectos esse, non erga rapaces lupos, sed erga miseras, seductas et errantes oves, ut earum infirmitatem et lapsum patienter ferant et eas summa mansuetudine tractent. WA 40a.625.29-626.10, on Gal. 4.12. See also WA 40b.137.18-22, on Gal. 6.1,
WA 40a.100.17-29, on Gal. 1.6 and WA 40a.116.26-28, on Gal. 1.7. they would perish. No, I would wish that they would return to the way and be saved together with us.'787
Accordingly, discipline is important in ministry, but it needs to originate from love and from a desire for the other person's benefit. As a father punishes his children for their good, and after punishment displays his continuing love for his offspring in a practical way by giving apples or pears to the child, so the minister ought to balance rebuke and discipline with soothing words.788 This principle is exhibited in the minister's care and kindness for the fallen. While one must rebuke the lapsed and the stubborn, all possible comfort is needed for those who grieve for their sins.789
4.6.5. Κενοδοξία (Vainglory) in Ministry The last subject examined in reference to Luther's concept of ministry is his exposition of κενοδοξία, vainglory in ministry, which he expounds in some detail on Gal. 5.25-26, 6.3-5 and 6.11-13. Luther draws a contrast between genuine and vainglorious ministers. He affirms that the Holy Spirit is given through authentic gospel work while the ministry of those asserting their own glory is without the Spirit and without Christ, propagating righteousness through human works instead.790 While vainglorious ministers seek their own glory (κενοδοξία), true ministers look for God's approval and strive for his honour. The ministry which exalts the propagator leads to the formation of sects, while good order, sacraments and the honour of God's Word are preserved by humble, authentic ministry.791 Both
787Est et nostra castigatio dura et stylus vehemens, sed profecto cor non est amarum, non invidum, non expetens vindictam de adversariis, Sed pia turbatio et dolor spiritus est in nobis. Non sic odi Papistas et alios erroneos spiritus, ut imprecer eis malum et cupiam eos perire, sed optarem potius eos redire in viam et una nobiscum salvari.WA 40a.630.18-22, on Gal. 4.12.
788WA 40a.630.23-632.29, on Gal. 4.12. See also WA 40a.648.30-32, on Gal. 4.18.
789Quare Pastores acriter quidem obiurgare debent lapsos, sed ubi viderint eos contristatos, incipiant erigere et consolari eos et peccata ipsorum, quantum possunt, extenuare, per misericordiam tamen, quam peccatis opponere debent, ne lapsi immodica tristicia absorbeantur. WA 40b.139.30-140.14, on Gal. 6.1.
Luther contrasts the tender attitude of true pastors toward the fallen with the practice of the papacy, who, Luther affirms, place further burdens for those already terrified under their sin by requiring adherence to new ceremonial observances and by commending a feeling of guilt. See WA 40b.140.17-141.15, on Gal.
790Lex enim sine Spiritu sancto non potest impleri. Sine Christo autem non accipitur Spiritus sanctus, quo non accepto manet Spiritus immundus, id est, contemnens Deum et quaerens suam gloriam. Ideo quicquid legis facit, hypocriticum est et duplex peccatum. Immundum enim cor non implet, sed foris tantum simulat se implere legem, atque ita fortius corroboratur in impietate et hypocrisi sua. WA
40b.168.15-20, on Gal. 6.13. See also the larger context in WA 40b.165.31-169.31, on Gal. 6.12-13.
791Itaque omnibus modis hoc nobis praestandum est, ut 'Bonum nostrum', hoc est, ministerium verbi, Sacramenta etc., honore afficiamus, Item ut invicem alii aliis honorem habeant, auditores doctoribus et econtra, Juxta illud: 'Honore alii alios praevenientes.' WA 40b.130.23-26, on Gal. 5.25. Hic describit effectum inanis gloriae. Magister erroris et novi dogmatis autor non potest non provocare alios, qui si dogma ipsius non approbant et recipiunt, statim incipit eos acerbissime odisse. Vidimus nostra aetate, quam implacabili odio contra nos arserint Phanatici spiritus, quod ipsis cedere et eorum errores approbare noluimus. WA 40b.134.12-16, on Gal. 5.26. Luther proceeds to mention doctrines where these true and illegitimate ministers have their own source for approval and boasting. The illegitimate ministers, being vainglorious, have their boast in what is external and in what is of human origin, seeking praise from other people's mouths and delighting in 'the applause of the crowd' (plausum vulgi).792 By way of contrast, the genuine minister has his boast on the inside, in a good testimony of his own conscience, when he knows he has performed his task honestly, sincerely and well. Luther affirms,
'Thus one who carries out his office correctly and faithfully does not care what the world says about him, he does not care whether it praises him or blames him. He has his boast within himself, which is the testimony of his conscience and a boasting in God.793
The purpose of this section on other concepts in Luther's Galatians is briefly to outline other themes, which could have been treated in a section of their own. They were not major themes in the commentaries as a whole, however. Nevertheless, they are treated as principal notions in some parts of Luther's commentary. The treatments here are very succinct, in the form of a brief summarising analysis of some of the central ideas on each of the subjects.
The other concepts identified in Luther's Galatians differ from those sketched for Calvin's Galatians which also reflects some specific emphases of the two reformers. For instance, the concepts of the devil and the theology of hope are treated in relative detail only in Luther's commentary while the notions on interpretation of Scripture, human depravity and God's providence are of more importance for Calvin's view.794 Nevertheless, in case a specific theme is treated only in reference to Luther or Calvin's Galatians, some aspects of the false teachers (Anabaptists) have gone astray, including sacraments, original sin and the oral Word. WA
40b.134.17-26, on Gal. 5.26.
792Est autem hoc proprium eorum, qui κενοδοξία laborant, quod prorsus nihil curant, an opus, id est, ministerium suum, purum sit nec ne, sed id unicum spectant, ut plausum vulgi acquirant. WA
40b.148.18-20, on Gal. 6.4. See also WA 40b.20-30, on Gal. 6.4.
793Quare qui recte et fideliter administraverit officium suum, nihil curat, quid mundus de se loquatur, non curat, sive laudet sive vituperet eum, sed habet gloriam in semetipso, quae est testimonium conscientiae et gloria in Deo. WA 40b.149.32-35, on Gal. 6.4. Luther adds that genuine ministry is not perfect, and stands in need of forgiveness. Nevertheless, the minister can and still ought to have a good conscience knowing his task has been conscientiously and well performed. See WA 40b.154.25-155.25, on Gal. 6.5.
794This is not to say that there is nothing significant Luther says on interpretation of Scripture, human depravity and God's providence in his commentary or that Calvin does not mention ideas connected to his view regarding the devil or the concept of hope in his Galatians. They do treat these themes, but in proportionately much less detail than the other reformer. corresponding theme in the other reformer's commentary are briefly outlined in a footnote.795
There are several interesting aspects of Luther's concept of the church, which he briefly alludes to in his commentary. For instance, Luther comments on the reason why Paul identified the Galatian believers as a church despite the fact that they had fallen away from the gospel. Luther explains that they were nevertheless called a church because the gospel, the authetic call to ministry, baptism and the name of Christ still continued among them despite their adherence to new false teachings.796
On similar lines, Luther rejects the notion suggested by scholastics and monks who saw the church as perfect and holy. Luther instead asserts that the church, as well as an individual believer, is righteous and sinner at the same time (sancta, tamen simul peccatrix).797
Further aspects of Luther's notion of the church can be identified in his comments on Gal. 3.28, 4.26-27 and 5.19. Luther affirms, in the context of the doctrine of two kingdoms (the spiritual kingdom of the church as distinct from the secular kingdom of the civil society),798 that in contrast to the world, where there are social differences, in the church all believers are one. The same benefits, the Spirit, gospel, faith, baptism, Father and Christ, belong to all, including even infants in their midst. In the world, by way of contrast, the difference in outward positions ought to be maintained.799 Another aspect of Luther's concept of the church in his
Galatians is the fact that the church is unseen in its character. Its true location is in heaven by faith. The true church is therefore 'invisible, dwelling in the Spirit'
795See footnotes 502 and 509 in sections 4.7.2. and 4.7.3. for an indication of the nature of Calvin's comment on the devil and the theme of hope and footnotes 1005, 1028 and 1033 under sections 5.6.1,
5.6.5 and 5.6.6 for a brief summary of Luther's comment on interpretation of Scripture, human depravity and God's providence.
796Manet in Romana urbe, quanquam Sodoma et Gomorrha peiore, Baptismus, Sacramentum, Vox et textus Evangelii, Sacra scriptura, Ministeria, nomen Christi, nomen Dei. Qui habent, habent qui non habent, non sunt excusati, Thesaurus enim est ibi. ... Licet igitur Galatae subversi fuerunt, tamen mansit apud eos Baptismus, Verbum, nomen Christi etc. ... Quare Ecclesia sancta est, etiam ubi phanatici spiritus regnant, modo ipsi non negent Verbum et Sacramenta. Negantes enim ea non sunt Ecclesia. WA
40a.69.23-27, 70.23-24, 71.29-21, on Gal. 1.2. For the larger context, see WA 40a.68.25-71.28, on Gal.
797Hoc dico contra monstrosa praeconia et laudes quibus stulti Sophistae et Monachi ornaverunt Sanctos, et dixerunt Ecclesiam sic sanctam esse, quod omnino sine peccato sit. Est quidem Ecclesia sancta, tamen simul peccatrix est. WA 40a.197.21-24, on Gal. 2.11.
798According to the doctrine of two kingdoms relating to the church vs. secular society, these two are distinct kingdoms with different purposes. The task of the church is spiritual and connected with the gospel while the duty of society is to maintain civil order. The two ought not to be confused or united with one another. There is also another sense in which one may identify a doctrine of two kingdoms in Luther, namely, a contrast drawn between the kingdom of God in contrast to the kingdom of the devil.
This theme, however, is not at issue here.
799WA 40a.544.34-545.23, on Gal. 3.28.
(invisibilis, habitans in Spiritu),800 and is scattered throughout the world wherever the Word of the gospel, sacraments, faith and the Spirit reign. Living by faith, the true church is an offence to the world, because it denies any saving value to good works. In doctrine, it is characterised by Christian liberty and freedom from righteousness by works, and in daily life it is set apart by the fact that it continues in faithfulness to its calling, practising spiritual gifts, and being kept by the Spirit from fleshly desires. The false church, by way of contrast, is a church, which, as in sorcery, fascinates and misleads people from the pure gospel by a show of its outwardly impressive deeds.801
4.7.2. Doctrine of the Devil Luther discusses the influence and the work of the devil in some detail in his exposition of Galatians 3.1, focusing on the concept of bewitchment (fascinum).802
Luther affirms that the whole world with all its people is under the power of the devil.803 While Luther asserts the reality of the power of witchcraft and its deluding influence, he is no dualist. Luther clearly recognises God as greater than the devil.
The believer can counteract the devil's influence by being armed with the Word of God and with faith, and by not trusting in one's own strength, but in Christ. Luther asserts,
'Look, Satan has tempted us before and has urged us with his plots to lose faith, despise God, and despair. Yet he has not accomplished anything, and he will not accomplish anything. He who is in us is greater than he who is
800Recte igitur fatemur in Simbolo, Nos credere Ecclesiam Sanctam. Est enim invisibilis, habitans in Spiritu, in loco 'inaccessibili', ideo non potest videri eius sanctitas. WA 40b.106.19-21, on Gal. 5.19.
801See WA 40a.663.29-664.26, on Gal. 4.26 and 40b.106.19-107.21, on Gal. 5.19.
802WA 40a.313.25-324.22, on Gal. 3.1. Calvin, for his part, occasionally refers to the devil or Satan, but does not treat the subject in any detail. Examples of Satan's work in Calvin's discussion can be seen in the division caused on the issue of the Lord's Supper, the papal rejection of assurance of faith, the departure of the allegorical interpretation from the plain meaning of Scripture and the reluctance of people to support godly ministers while giving plenty to Satan's ministers. See COR 16.32, on Gal. 2.2;
COR 16.95, on Gal. 4.6; COR 16.106, on Gal. 4.22 and COR 16.141, on Gal. 6.6. Calvin explains that Satan deceives people, often leading astray indirectly and through false teaching instead of overthrowing the whole gospel. See COR 16.7, Argumentum; COR 16.22, on Gal. 1.10; COR 16.59, on Gal. 3.1; COR
16.65, on Gal. 3.6; COR 16.103, on Gal. 4.17; COR 16.122, on Gal. 5.9; COR 16.128, on Gal. 5.15 and COR 16.137, on Gal. 6.1. However, God has saved his people from the power of 'sin, Satan and death'.
Quia [Christus] vim Legis abrogavit, quatenus Dei iudicio nos tenebat obnoxios sub reatu aeternae mortis; quia denique a tyrannide peccati, Satanae, et mortis nos asseruit. See COR 16.115, on Gal. 5.1. It appears that there is evident similarity in the foundational concept of Luther and Calvin regarding the devil. Both assert the reality of the devil and his activity both in the world and through false doctrines in the church, yet firmly trust in God's power over him. Nevertheless, there is a clear difference in the emphasis each reformer places on the theme. For Luther the theme of the devil is more central than for Calvin - one would not expect to find a scholarly work describing Calvin as 'the man between God and the devil', for instance. Luther, however, has been identified in this way by Heiko Oberman in his fairly recent biography of Luther. See Oberman 1989b.
803Negari enim non potest, quin Diabolus vivat, imo regnet in toto mundo. WA 40a.314.14-15, on Gal. in the world. Christ is stronger; He has overcome, is overcoming, and will overcome that strong man in us.'804
Luther further distinguishes physical witchcraft from spiritual witchcraft. Physical witchcraft (fascino corporali) is the direct form of witchcraft, which creates an external illusion, exemplified for instance by someone's body being debilitated by sorcery. This is, however, the crude form (crasso modo) of how
Satan leads people astray.805 Spiritual witchcraft (fascino spirituali), orinating from the white, disguised devil, is more dangerous, because it deceives on the inside.
Spiritual sorcery is again of two forms, the first in the form of false doctrine such as the doctrines of Münzer, Zwingli, the Anabaptists and Sacramentarians.806 The second type of spiritual sorcery is personal in character, referring to those whom the devil has led either to pride or to discouragement. The proud have been deceived to trust in their own righteousness while the discouraged are those from whom the devil has obscured their hope in Christ.807
Luther nevertheless sees also a positive role for the temptations of the devil in Christian life. The temptations train the Christian to remain faithful in pure doctrine and also impel them to put their faith in Christ, and in his victory over 4.7.3. Theology of Hope
Luther discusses hope and its relationship to faith in some detail in his exposition of Gal. 5.5.809 Luther distinguishes hope as a thing hoped for (pro re sperata) from 804Ecce antea quoque tentavit et insidiis suis sollicitavit nos Satan ad incredulitatem, contemtum dei, desperationem, et tamen nihil effecit, — ideo neque in posterum aliquid efficiet; Maior enim est in nobis quam qui in mundo est; Christus fortior est qui illum fortem in nobis vicit, vincit et vincet. WA
40a.318.19-23, on Gal. 3.1.
805Having just concluded the section where Luther deals with direct witchcraft, he states, Non solum autem hoc crasso modo, sed etiam subtiliore eoque magis periculoso dementat homines Ibi praecipue est optimus artifex. WA 40a.316.21-22, on Gal. 3.1. For the section dealing with direct witchcraft, see WA
40a.313.28-316.20, on Gal. 3.1.
806Hoc modo fascinavit nostro tempore Muntzerum, Cinglium et alios per quos alios innumerabiles fascinavit. WA 40a.317.19-20, on Gal. 3.1. See also WA 40a.317.16-20, on Gal. 3.1.
807WA 40a.317.21-36, on Gal. 3.1.
808WA 40a.318.12-25, on Gal. 3.1. Tulisalo has dealt with the doctrine of the devil in Luther's commentary on Galatians 1531/35 in his MA thesis from 1979. As Mannermaa in his evaluation of the work affirms, Tulisalo's thesis is a solid piece of work (see the last page of the thesis for the review), despite some minor weaknesses. The work gives a good overall picture of the total context of the doctrine of the devil in Luther's commentary. The alleged dualism of Luther's theology of God and the devil, the hidden work of God through the devil, the rulership of the devil over fallen humans and the victory of Christ, the gospel and the preached Word of the gospel over the devil, are each briefly and interestingly delineated. See Tulisalo 1979. Tulisalo's work includes also a helpful listing of research relating to this rarely discussed theme of Luther's (pp. 76-79). See also section 5.2. in Koivisto 2004 for another brief discussion on the doctrine of the devil in Luther's Galatians.
809Calvin, for his part, does not treat the subject of hope in any greater detail in his commentary although the word hope (spe) itself is mentioned several times. Therefore one cannot identify any specific concept of a theology of hope in Calvin's commentary as compared to that of Luther. Nevertheless, Calvin makes hope as feeling (pro affectu sperante).810 As a thing hoped for (pro re sperata), hope refers to the fact that the righteousness of the believers is perceived in hope. This righteousness is not yet seen, since perfect righteousness (or justification) awaits the believer only in heaven. Thus, in line with the concept of simul iustus et peccator the believers are still imperfect but can nevertheless have hope (pro affectu sperante) because they can rely on Christ and his righteousness on their behalf.811
Most of Luther's discussion on hope focuses on hope as feeling, an interpretation which Luther prefers over faith as a thing hoped for (pro re sperata), because the former (pro affectu sperante) 'brings more abundant comfort'.812 The relationship between faith and hope is important in this context. Hope and faith overlap somewhat, but nevertheless Luther sees a clear difference between the two.
While faith is the theologian and the judge, perceiving right knowledge and teaching correctly, hope is a captain against despair, bringing comfort and peace in the Spirit, exhorting the Christian. Similarly, while faith is prudence, hope is fortitude and whereas faith is dialectic, hope is rhetoric, representing the perceiving function of faith and the encouraging purpose of hope.813 Luther elucidates, a brief application after an exegetical comment on the phrase 'spem iusticiae expectamus' in Gal. 5.5
(the instance which led Luther to discuss the theology of hope). Calvin notes that the phrase spem iusticiae expectamus refers to the believers' confidence on a certain object. Calvin sees it likely that there is an exhortation intended in this phrase for fortitude in expecting righteousness to be received by faith.
COR 16.118, on Gal. 5.5. A brief delineation of some of Calvin's other comments on hope is included below.
Hope of salvation is strengthened by seeing God as our loving Father. COR 16.66, on Gal. 3.6. This hope is to be grounded on God's mercy, not works or the law. COR 16.50, on Gal.
2.15; COR 16.66, on Gal. 3.7 and COR 16.87, on Gal. 3.28. Hope of eternal life, on the other hand, is enjoyed by Christians since they have God as their Father, and believers ought to place more of their hope in the blessed immortality awaiting them at the end. COR 16.66, on Gal. 3.6 and COR 16.142, on Gal. 6.7. Also, Calvin reminds his readers that it is important that hope and patience are exercised by Christians. COR 16.144, on Gal. 6.9.
However, in Calvin's Institutio 1543/45 one can find Calvin discussing the relationship between hope and faith in more detail. The concepts Calvin introduces there are similar to Luther's though much briefer and less comprehensive than in Luther's Galatians. See CO 1.5.37 for further detail.
810Spes usu Scripturae dupliciter accipitur, pro re sperata et pro affectu sperante. WA 40b.23.27-28, on 811WA 40b.23.27-25.18, on Gal. 5.5.
812Utraque sententia bona est, sed prior de affectu sperante uberiorem affert consolationem. WA 40b.25.19-20, on Gal. 5.5.
813 Luther further instructs that one ought not to consult one's own heart but the Word of God as grounds for one's hope. WA 40b.32.25-30, on Gal. 5.5. A more detailed description of hope in Luther's commentary on Galatians can be found in two MA theses written on the theme at Helsinki University
(Nivala 1992, Koivisto 2004). Nivala focuses on concepts connecting to hope, first on the law leading humans to despair, and second on faith in Christ and in God's promise, which lay the groundwork for hope. The last section of Nivala's work (chapter 4) describes Luther's theology of hope outlining a) hope as a thing hoped for and hope as a feeling (pro re sperata, pro affectu sperante), b) the difference between hope and faith, c) hope as a fighting entity, which defends and sustains faith and d) the relationship of hope to love, especially relating to the end of faith and hope when love is perfected in the life to come.
See Nivala 1992. Koivisto, in his more detailed study on Luther's theology of hope in his Galatians, 'Therefore faith is like dialectic, which conceives the idea of all the things that are to be believed; and hope is like rhetoric, which develops, urges, persuades, and exhorts to steadiness, so that faith does not collapse in temptation but keeps the Word and holds firmly to it.'814
Luther discusses the theme of the Lord's Supper815 at some length on two occasions (on Gal. 5.9-10, 6.1).816 On each occasion the main theme is purity of doctrine.
Luther makes a distinction between doctrine and faith on the one hand and life and love on the other (on Gal. 5.9).817 The distinction is slightly differently termed in Luther's exposition of Gal. 6.1 where he contrasts concord of faith and Spirit (concordiam fidei seu Spiritus) with concord of life and love
(concordiam vitae, charitatis concordiam).818 Luther responds with this distinction to the complaint by 'Sacramentarians' (Sacramentarii) that the followers of Luther
(or Luther himself) are dividing Christian concord by their insistence on their particular view of the doctrine on the Eucharist.819 Luther asserts, however, that doctrine and faith must be kept absolutely pure and free from all error, or otherwise focuses a) on the difference between hope and faith, b) on hope as a feeling ('affekti'), c) on hope seen in the context of Luther's anthropology and d) on hope in the counselling function of a minister. Koivisto's work contains some interesting insights. For instance, there is correspondence between Luther's emphasis on faith as the right understanding of doctrine vs. hope as comfort and Luther's stress on true ministry as a) maintaining the right doctrine (function of faith) and b) being tender to the weak and fallen
(function of hope). Thus, maintaining both pure faith on the one hand and engendering hope in one's flock through God's promises on the other, connect in a vital way to the work of the minister (Koivisto
2004: 84-88). Both Nivala and Koivisto's works also highlight Luther's theology of hope as important in view of the Anfechtungen of the believer. Perhaps Luther stresses hope much more than Calvin in his commentary precisely because hope found from God's promises is so important in the struggles and tribulations the believers experience, a theme present in a significant way only in Luther.
814Fides igitur est Dialectica, quae concipit ideam omnium credendorum, Spes Rhetorica, quae amplificat, urget, persuadet et exhortatur ad constantiam, ne fides in tentatione succumbat, sed retineat verbum et firmiter ille adhaereat. WA 40b.28.12-14, on Gal. 5.5. See also WA 40b.25.27-30.16, on Gal.
815For the larger context of Luther's doctrine on the Eucharist and its context in reference to Gabriel Biel's corresponding view, see Cleve 1968. While recognizing there is much continuity between Luther's doctrine of the Eucharist and that of Gabriel Biel, especially in terms of Christ's real presence in the sacrament, Cleve posits that Luther's specific teachings on 'word, faith and justification' intimately associated with the Lord's Supper nevertheless do not 'allow us to consider him a nominalist.' Cleve
816An interesting parallel discussion is found in Luther's exposition of Gal. 3.27, where Luther briefly addresses the concept of baptism. Baptism, according to Luther, is a powerful event, in which Christ is put on the infant, and where the new birth and regeneration take place. What Christ has the infant therefore has, in opposition to the concept according to which baptism is merely a symbol of entrance to the Christian community. For further discussion on Luther's view of baptism, and for a selection of Luther's writings on baptism, see Huovinen 1991a and 1991b.
817WA 40b.45.23-46.28, on Gal. 5.9.
818WA 40b.136.28-31, on Gal. 6.1.
819WA 40b.45.23-46.28, on Gal. 5.9. both the Holy Spirit and the purity of doctrine are lost. A little philosophical error
'is very great at the end' (fine est maximus).820 In life, however, love, concord and mildness ought to reign.821 Therefore Luther maintains that as soon as the Sacramentarians are ready to return to right doctrine, (implying an acceptance of the doctrine of Christ's bodily presence in the Eucharist), Christian concord can take place and Lutherans will demonstrate loving regard for them. However, as long as the Sacramentarians are not ready to do this, Luther asserts that the Sacramentarians are to be regarded as condemned and excommunicated since they regard the doctrine of the Lord's Supper as an uncertain issue, and thus do violence to Christ's words.822
820Ad hoc ipsorum argumentum respondemus cum Paulo: 'Modicum fermenti totam massam corrumpit'.
In Philosophia modicus error in principio in fine est maximus. Sic in Theologia modicus error totam doctrinam evertit. WA 40b.46.16-19, on Gal. 5.9.
821WA 40b.46.21-24, on Gal. 5.9 and WA 40b.51.28-52.25, on Gal. 5.10. Luther maintains that doctrine is like a mathematical point, which cannot be divided. Life, however, is like a physical point, which can always be divided. Est enim doctrina instar Mathematici puncti, non potest igitur dividi, hoc est, neque ademptionem neque additionem ferre potest. Contra vita, quae est instar Physici puncti, semper dividi, semper aliquid concedere potest. WA 40b.46.25-28, on Gal. 5.9.
822WA 40b.47.22-34, on Gal. 5.9 and WA 40b.136.20-137.34, on Gal. 6.1.